История США

1. Geographical position:

 

1) What is the difference between the expressions: Great Britain, the UK, the British Isles?

Because England is the most important component of Britain, strangers are apt to forget that she is but a part of the British Isles. When the British themselves speak of England, they mean only England. When they say Great Britain, they mean England, Wales and Scotland. For the United Kingdom they add Northern Ireland. The British Isles is Great Britain, with the addition of the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and other bits of land dotted here and there in British waters, and, geographically if not politically, Eire.

 

2) What are other but London capitals in the UK?

The capital, seat of government, and largest city of the United Kingdom is London, which is also the capital of England.

England - The capital is London.

Scotland - The capital is Edinburgh.

Wales - The capital is Cardiff.

Northern Ireland - The capital is Belfast.

Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and the seat of the Scottish Parliament. It is the second largest city in Scotland and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. Located in the south-east of Scotland, Edinburgh lies on the east coast of the Central Belt, along the Firth of Forth, near the North Sea. The city hosts the annual Edinburgh Festival, a group of official and independent festivals held annually over about four weeks beginning in early August. The number of visitors attracted to Edinburgh for the Festival is roughly equal to the settled population of the city. The best-known of these events are the Edinburgh Fringe, the largest performing-arts festival in the world; the Edinburgh International Festival; the Edinburgh Military Tattoo; and the Edinburgh International Book Festival. Other annual events include the Hogmanay street party and the Beltane Fire Festival. Edinburgh attracts over 1 million overseas visitors a year, making it the second most visited tourist destination in the United Kingdom.

Edinburgh is the most competitive large city in the UK according to the Centre for International Competitiveness. Edinburgh also has the highest Gross value added per employee of any city in the UK outside London, measuring £50,256 in 2007. A combination of these factors saw Edinburgh named the Best Small City of the future by Di Magazine for 2010/11. Education and health, finance and business services, retailing and tourism are the largest employers. The economy of Edinburgh is largely based on the services sector – centered around banking, financial services, higher education, and tourism.

Cardiff is the capital and largest city in Wales and the 10th largest city in the United Kingdom. The city is Wales' chief commercial center, the base for most national cultural and sporting institutions, the Welsh national media, and the seat of the National Assembly for Wales. Cardiff was made a city in 1905, and proclaimed capital of Wales in 1955. Since the 1990s Cardiff has seen significant development with a new waterfront area at Cardiff Bay which contains the Senedd building, home to the Welsh Assembly and the Wales Millennium Centre arts complex. Current developments include the continuation of the redevelopment of the Cardiff Bay and city centre areas with projects such as the Cardiff International Sports Village, a BBC drama village, and a new business district in the city centre. Cardiff is the largest media centre in the UK outside of London. Sporting venues in the city include the Millennium Stadium (the national stadium for the Wales national rugby union team and the Wales national football team), SWALEC Stadium (the home of Glamorgan County Cricket Club), Cardiff City Stadium (the home of Cardiff City football team and Cardiff Blues rugby union team), Cardiff International Sports Stadium (the home of Cardiff Amateur Athletic Club) and Cardiff Arms Park (the home of Cardiff Rugby Club). The city is also HQ of the Wales Rally GB and was awarded with the European City of Sport in 2009 due to its role in hosting major international sporting events. It has been announced that Cardiff will once again be the European City of Sport in 2014. The Millennium Stadium will also host 11 football matches as part of the 2012 Summer Olympics, including the games' opening event and the men's bronze medal match.

Belfast is the capital of and largest city in Northern Ireland. By population, it is the fourteenth largest city in the United Kingdom and second largest on the island of Ireland. It is the seat of the devolved government and legislative Northern Ireland Assembly. The city of Belfast has a population of 267,500 and lies at the heart of the Belfast urban area. Belfast was granted city status in 1888.

Historically, Belfast has been a centre for the Irish linen industry (earning the nickname "Linenopolis"), tobacco production, rope-making and shipbuilding: the city's main shipbuilders, Harland and Wolff, which built the well-known RMS Titanic, propelled Belfast on to the global stage in the early 20th century as the biggest and most productive shipyard in the world. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, establishing its place as a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. Industrialisation and the inward migration it brought made Belfast, if briefly, the biggest city in Ireland at the turn of the 20th century and the city's industrial and economic success was cited by Ulster unionist opponents of Home Rule as a reason why Ireland should shun devolution and later why Ulster in particular would fight to resist it.

Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education and business, a legal centre, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland. The city suffered greatly during the period of conflict called the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calm, free from the intense political violence of former years, and substantial economic and commercial growth. Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, notably around Victoria Square. Belfast is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport in the city, and Belfast International Airport 15 miles (24 km) west of the city. Belfast is also a major seaport, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the famous Harland and Wolff shipyard. Belfast is a constituent city of the Dublin-Belfast corridor, which has a population of three million, or half the total population of the island of Ireland.

 

3) Name the islands around Great Britain. Which of the islands are the Crown dependencies?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. The British political system:

 

1) What is the meaning of a constitutional monarchy? What is the role of monarchy in modern Britain?

Constitutional monarchy (or limited monarchy) is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified, or blended constitution. This form of government differs from absolute monarchy in which an absolute monarch serves as the source of power in the state and is not legally bound by any constitution and has the powers to regulate his or her respective government.

Most constitutional monarchies employ a parliamentary system in which the monarch may have strictly ceremonial duties or may have reserve powers, depending on the constitution. Under most modern constitutional monarchies there is also a prime minister who is the head of government and exercises effective political power.

The present monarch of Great Britain, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned since 6 February 1952. She and her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial and representational duties. As a constitutional monarch, the Queen is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The Queen is also Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces. Though the ultimate executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch's royal prerogative, these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament, and, in practice, within the constraints of convention and precedent.

 

2) What are the two chambers in Parliament and what is the major difference between them? Which of the Houses is stronger politically? Why are the Lords called the House of Obstruction?

The parliament is bicameral, with an upper house, the House of Lords, and a lower house, the House of Commons. The Queen is the third component of the legislature.

The business of Parliament takes place in two Houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Their work is similar: making laws (legislation), checking the work of the government (scrutiny), and debating current issues. The House of Commons is also responsible for granting money to the government through approving Bills that raise taxes. Generally, the decisions made in one House have to be approved by the other. In this way the two-chamber system acts as a check and balance for both Houses.

Both Commons and Lords meet in the Palace of Westminster.

The Commons

The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Commons is a democratically elected body, consisting of 650 members (since the 2010 general election), who are known as Members of Parliament. Members are elected through the first-past-the-post system by electoral districts known as constituencies. They hold their seats until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five years after the preceding election).

The House of Commons was originally far less powerful than the House of Lords, but today its legislative powers greatly exceed those of the Lords.

Members of the Commons debate the big political issues of the day and proposals for new laws. It is one of the key places where government ministers, like the Prime Minister and the Chancellor, and the principal figures of the main political parties, work.

The Commons alone is responsible for making decisions on financial Bills, such as proposed new taxes. The Lords can consider these Bills but cannot block or amend them. Bills may be introduced in either house, though controversial bills normally originate in the House of Commons. The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented for the Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords.

The House of Commons scrutinises the Government through "Question Time", during which members have the opportunity to ask questions of the prime minister and of other cabinet ministers. Prime minister's question time occurs once each week, normally for a half-hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding minister's official government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament.

The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown.

 

The Lords

The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster.

The House of Lords is the second chamber of Parliament. It is independent from, and complements the work of, the House of Commons – they share responsibility for making laws and checking government action

It makes laws, holds government to account and investigates policy issues. Its membership is mostly appointed and includes experts in many fields.

Unlike the House of Commons, most new members of the House of Lords are appointed. Membership of the House of Lords is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. Membership was once a right of birth to hereditary peers but, following a series of reforms, only 92 members (as of 1 July 2011) sitting by virtue of a hereditary peerage remain. The number of members is not fixed; as of 1 April 2012 the House of Lords has 786 members  as against the fixed 650-seat membership of the House of Commons.

The role of the House of Lords is primarily to act as a body of specialist knowledge that scrutinizes in greater detail bills that have been approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends bills from the Commons. The House of Lords debates legislation, and has power to amend or reject bills. However, the power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for the Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords. The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill for more than one month. Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and cannot have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years.

The Lords acts as constitutional safeguard that is independent from the electoral process and that can challenge the will of the people when the majority’s desires threaten key constitutional principles, human rights or rules of law.

By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned. The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or Supply (supply of treasury or exchequer funds), nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision. (The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.) Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill. The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts, as aforementioned.

The House of Lords does not control the term of the Prime Minister or of the Government. Only the Lower House may force the Prime Minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by withdrawing supply. Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited.

 

3) When is Parliament actually in session? What is a working day in Parliament?

Parliament does not sit all year round. During periods called recesses, Members can carry out their other duties.

Recess dates are announced in the House of Commons by the Leader of the House of Commons. In the House of Lords recess dates are announced by the Chief Whip.

The exact pattern of recesses can change and is normally slightly different for the two Houses.

House of Commons:

Recess dates 2012-13

State Opening: 9 May 2012

Recess                               House rises                                               House returns

Whitsun                      24 May 2012                                    11 June 2012

Summer                      17 July 2012                                      3 September 2012

Conference           18 September 2012                              15 October 2012

Autumn               13 November 2012                           19November2012

Christmas                20 December 2012                                 7 January 2013

 

House of Lords:

Recess dates 2012-13

State Opening 9 May 2012

Recess                                  House rises                                            House returns

The Queen's Diamond      30 May 2012                                    11 June 2012

Jubilee  

Summer                         25 July 2012                                8 October 2012

Autumn                         14 November 2012              19 November 2012

Christmas                         20 December 2012                      8 January 2013

 

The sitting (meeting) hours of the House of Commons are 2.30-10.30pm on Mondays and Tuesdays, 11.30am-7.30pm on Wednesdays, 10.30am-6.30pm on Thursdays  and 9.30am-3pm on sitting Fridays.

 

4) What is the procedure of passing and enacting a bill?

The basic function of Parliament is to make laws, amend them or repeal them. The process of law making or the legislative process, in relation to Parliament, may be defined as the process by which a legislative proposal brought before it, is translated into the law of the land.

The Whitehall stage.

Almost all Bills are Public, that is, they affect the whole country. But a few are Private and only affect a local area or institution such as a company. These must be distinguished from Private Members’ Bills which are Public Bills proposed by backbench MPs. Public Bills originate from a number of different sources. The majority are proposed by government departments in Whitehall. Surprisingly, relatively few of these have been set out in a manifesto. Most are devised by ministers and civil servants without having been put to the electorate for specific approval. Some proposed legislation originates from the findings of special commissions or official inquiries, or from reports of the Law Commission, which is a permanent body set up to review areas of the law which might need change. The Government decides whether or not to agree to these proposals and put them before Parliament.

Once a department has decided that it wishes to ask Parliament to pass legislation on a certain topic, it will undergo a consultation process with interested parties.

The extent of this process will differ depending on the complexity, importance and urgency of the matter. It may take many months or a few days. The first stage is often a consultation document called a Green Paper which sets out in general terms what the Government is seeking to do and asks for views. Once these are received and taken account of (or not) the Government will produce a White Paper, which sets out the proposals decided upon and the reasons for the legislation. These two stages may be contracted into one.

These stages are not fixed by formal rules and are subject to change. For example, it is increasingly common for draft Bills to be drawn up and circulated for consultation before being formally laid before Parliament.

Drafting:

At the point where a department has decided on the provisions it wishes to pass these are passed to civil servants called Parliamentary Counsel, lawyers who are experts in drafting techniques. A long or complex Bill may take many months to draft, with regular meetings between Parliamentary Counsel and the department responsible for the Bill to ensure that the wording accurately reflects what is proposed. Once the Bill is drafted it is ready to be presented to Parliament.

The Westminster stage:

In order to be given time in Parliament, a Bill must have been approved by the Future Business committee. This is a cabinet committee which decides which Bills will be put before Parliament in the following session. Thus, a department wishing to pass legislation must normally seek space in the timetable from the committee the year before it will be ready to be passed. In this way, there is a rolling programme of proposals and Bills at different stages of preparation. At any one time Parliament will know what is due to come before it for the current and future session.

All Bills must be passed by both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. They can start in either, but most start in the Commons and pass through the following stages:

First reading:

This is a formal stage whereby the Bill is laid before the House and is ordered to be printed. There is no debate on its content.

Second reading:

At this stage, the Minister sets out the policy objectives of the Bill and a debate is held in the House on its merits in broad terms. It is rare for there to be a vote on the Bill at this stage or for a Government Bill to be defeated.

Committee stage:

The detailed scrutiny of a Bill takes place in a Standing Committee, which, despite its name, is specially drawn up for each Bill. It is made up of about 18 MPs selected by another committee called the Committee of Selection. The purpose of the Committee is not to consider the desirability of the Bill in principle, since that has already been approved by the House during the Second Reading, but to scrutinize the workability of the detailed clauses.

Report stage:

Once the Committee has agreed a draft Bill it goes back to the House. The Government may reject the changes carried out at Committee stage or, indeed, make further changes. One controversial development in recent years has been the growing tendency for the Government to seek to make significant changes to a Bill at this stage. A recent example being the Criminal Justice Bill 2003 in which new clauses were produced by the Home Office at the report stage, including major policy issues such as restricting judicial discretion in relation to life sentences.

Third reading:

The final stage is another formality, where the Bill is confirmed and is now ready to be passed to the House of Lords. No change can be made to the content of the Bill at this stage.

Process in the House of Lords:

The formal stages in the Lords are broadly similar to those of the Commons, apart from the fact that the Committee stage is usually carried out in the House as a whole rather than by Committee, and this stage is less tightly controlled, with unrestricted debate allowed on amendments. In addition, changes can be made at the third reading stage. However, the culture of the Lords is rather different there is less government control of the process. The party system which is The legislative process enforced through the Whips is weakened by the presence of cross-benchers who do not belong to any party and other Lords such as the Law Lords who may contribute to debate on Bills affecting the legal system. However, the capacity of the Lords to affect legislation is also limited. It can delay the passage of most Bills for a year, but will only do so in rare cases. A recent example of the Lords exercising this power arose in relation to the legislation banning fox hunting, which was finally passed on the second attempt.

Royal Assent:

This is the final stage in the legislative process whereby the Queen signs the Act of Parliament. It may come into force immediately or at a future stage, as stipulated in the Act. For example, the Human Rights Act was passed in 1998 but came into force in October 2000 once training and other preparations had been completed.

Overview of the system:

The key feature of the legislative process is that it is strongly controlled by the Government, and the bigger the Government’s majority the greater that control. Almost all legislation is initiated by the Government and even backbench MPs of the party in power have relatively little scope to influence its content. Through the system of Whips, MPs who enforce party discipline, they are required to support their party line on almost all important legislative decisions. Occasionally backbenchers will revolt and vote against the Government, or threaten to do so unless amendments are made. But this is a card which most MPs can only play rarely without threatening their chances of ever being asked to join the Government, or indeed, without running the risk of having the Whip withdrawn, thus being expelled from the parliamentary party.

The advantage of this system of strong Government control is that the party elected can implement the manifesto on which it was given a mandate by the electorate. The disadvantage is that those who voted for another party, who may constitute a majority of the population, have almost no effective representation in the law-making process.

In addition, the quality of legislation may be weakened by lack of meaningful debate or unwillingness to take account of valid input from those outside the Government. There are many examples of ill-thought-out and unworkable legislation which has been rushed through by the Government in response to a perceived crisis.

 

3. English art and culture.

 

1) Architects and artists.

1. Who painted:

a) “Marriage a la Mode” – the series of pictures consisting six works of art painted in 1743–1745 by William Hogarth. These pictures are moralistic warning showing the disastrous results of an ill-considered marriage for money and satirizing patronage and aesthetics.

b) “The Cornfield” – is an oil-on-canvas painting by the English artist John Constable. It was finished in 1826 and was first exhibited at the Royal Academy that same year. It measures 143 by 122 cm.

c) “Portrait of a Lady in blue” – the picture painted in 1770 by Thomas Gainsborough an English portrait and landscape painter.

d) “The Fighting Temeraire” – is an oil painting executed in 1839 by the English artist J. M. W. Turner. It depicts one of the last second-rate ships of the line which played a distinguished role in the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.

 

2. Who were the Pre-Raphaelites? Name the most famous of them.

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (also known as the Pre-Raphaelites) was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. The three founders were soon joined by William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens and Thomas Woolner to form a seven-member "brotherhood".

The group's intention was to reform art by rejecting what they considered to be the mechanistic approach first adopted by the Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo. They believed that the Classical poses and elegant compositions of Raphael in particular had been a corrupting influence on the academic teaching of art. Hence the name: Pre-Raphaelite. In particular, they objected to the influence of Sir Joshua Reynolds, the founder of the English Royal Academy of Arts, whom they called "Sir Sloshua". To the Pre-Raphaelites, according to William Michael Rossetti, "sloshy" meant "anything lax or scamped in the process of painting and hence anything or person of a commonplace or conventional kind". In contrast, they wanted to return to the abundant detail, intense colors, and complex compositions of Quattrocento Italian and Flemish art.

The Pre-Raphaelites have been considered the first avant-garde movement in art, though they have also been denied that status, because they continued to accept both the concepts of history painting and of mimesis, or imitation of nature, as central to the purpose of art. However, the Pre-Raphaelites undoubtedly defined themselves as a reform-movement, created a distinct name for their form of art, and published a periodical, The Germ, to promote their ideas. Their debates were recorded in the Pre-Raphaelite Journal.

3. Which is the most famous building by each of these men:

a) Inigo Jones – is the first significant British architect of the modern period, and the first to bring Italianate Renaissance architecture to England. He left his mark on London by single buildings, such as the Banqueting House, Whitehall, and in area design for Covent Garden square which became a model for future developments in the West End. He also made major contributions to stage design by his work as theatrical designer for several dozen masques, most by royal command and many in collaboration with Ben Jonson.

List of works:

• Design for the completion of the central tower, old St Paul's Cathedral, not executed.
• The Queen's House, Greenwich, (1616–1619) work suspended on the death of Anne of Denmark completed (1630–1635) for Henrietta Maria of France.
• Gateway at Oatlands Palace, (1617) now at Chiswick House.
• Banqueting House, Whitehall (1619–22).
• Prince's Lodging, Newmarket for Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, (1619) demolished.
• The Queen's Chapel, St. James's Palace, (1623–27) for Henrietta Maria of France.
• Covent Garden, London, houses on the north and east side as well as St Paul's, Covent Garden on the west (1631–1637) only the church survives.
• Palace of Whitehall, various schemes for the complete rebuilding of the palace (1637–1639).
• Temple Bar, London, design for triumpal arch, not executed (1638).
• Screen in Winchester Cathedral (1638), demolished.

b) Sir Christopher Wren – is one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. He used to be accorded responsibility for rebuilding 51 churches in the City of London after the Great Fire in 1666, including his masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral, on Ludgate Hill, completed in 1710. Other notable buildings by Wren include the Royal Naval College in Greenwich and the south front of Hampton Court Palace.

 

c) Sir Charles Barry – was an English architect, best known for his role in the rebuilding of the Palace of Westminster (also known as the Houses of Parliament) in London during the mid-19th century, but also responsible for numerous other buildings and gardens. He is known for his major contribution to the use of Italianate architecture in Britain, especially the use of the Palazzo as basis for the design of country houses, city mansions and public buildings, he also developed the Italian Renaissance garden style for the many gardens he designed around country houses.

List of works:

• St Peter's Church, Brighton (1824–1828)
• The Royal Institution of Fine Arts, Manchester, now Manchester Art Gallery (1824–35)18
• The Royal Sussex County Hospital, Brighton (1828)
• The Royal College of Surgeons, London (1834–1836)
• New gateway and entrance lodge plus alterations to the gardens Bowood House, Wiltshire (1834–1838)
• King Edward's School, New Street, Birmingham (1838)
• Lancaster House, London, interiors (1838–1840)
• The Trafalgar Square precinct (1840)

 

d) Sir Joseph Paxton – was an English gardener and architect, best known for designing The Crystal Palace. The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and plate-glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 564 m) long, with an interior height of 39 m. Because of the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which allowed for large sheets of cheap but strong glass, it was at the time the largest amount of glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights, thus a "Crystal Palace".

 

 

 

4. Who was:

a) A theatrical designer, collaborator with Ben Jonson, and the first great English architect?

Inigo Jones (15 July 1573 – 21 June 1652) is the first significant British architect of the modern period, and the first to bring Italianate Renaissance architecture to England. He left his mark on London by single buildings, such as the Banqueting House, Whitehall, and in area design for Covent Garden square which became a model for future developments in the West End. He also made major contributions to stage design by his work as theatrical designer for several dozen masques, most by royal command and many in collaboration with Ben Jonson.

b) Born in Devon, and having studied in Italy, became the first President of the Royal Academy?

The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly, London. The Royal Academy of Arts has a unique position in being an independent, privately funded institution led by eminent artists and architects whose purpose is to promote the creation, enjoyment and appreciation of the visual arts through exhibitions, education and debate.

The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through a personal act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. The motive in founding the Academy was twofold: to raise the professional status of the artist by establishing a sound system of training and expert judgment in the arts and to arrange the exhibition of contemporary works of art attaining an appropriate standard of excellence. Behind this concept was the desire to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation and interest in the public based on recognised canons of good taste.

Sir William Chambers used his connections with King George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy and the painter Sir Joshua Reynolds was made its first President.

 

5. Who were:

а) William Kent (1685 – 1748), born in Bridlington, Yorkshire, was an eminent English architect, landscape architect and furniture designer of the early 18th century.

Kent started practicing as an architect relatively late, in the 1730s. He is better remembered as an architect of the revived Palladian style in England. Kent applied this style to several public buildings in London: the Royal Mews at Charing Cross (1731–1733, demolished in 1830), the Treasury buildings in Whitehall (1733–1737), the Horse Guards building in Whitehall, (designed shortly before his death and built 1750–1759). These neo-antique buildings were inspired as much by the architecture of Raphael and Giulio Romano as by Palladio. Kent could provide sympathetic Gothic designs, free of serious antiquarian tendencies, when the context called; he worked on the Gothic screens in Westminster Hall and Gloucester Cathedral.

As a landscape designer, Kent was one of the originators of the English landscape garden, a style of 'natural' gardening that revolutionised the laying out of gardens and estates. His projects included Chiswick House, Stowe, Buckinghamshire, from about 1730 onwards, designs for Alexander Pope's villa garden at Twickenham, for Queen Caroline at Richmond and notably at Rousham House, Oxfordshire, where he created a sequence of Arcadian set-pieces punctuated with temples, cascades, grottoes and Palladian bridges, opening the field for the larger scale achievements of Capability Brown in the following generation.

His stately furniture designs complemented his interiors: he designed furnishings for Hampton Court Palace (1732), Lord Burlington's Chiswick House (1729), London, Thomas Coke's Holkham Hall, Norfolk, Robert Walpole's pile at Houghton, for Devonshire House in London, and at Rousham. The royal barge he designed for Frederick, Prince of Wales can still be seen at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

 

Lancelot Brown (30 August 1716  – 6 February 1783),more commonly known as Capability Brown, was an English landscape architect.

He is remembered as "the last of the great English eighteenth-century artists to be accorded his due", and "England's greatest gardener". He designed over 170 parks, many of which still endure. His influence was so great that the contributions to the English garden made by his predecessors Charles Bridgeman and William Kent are often overlooked; even Kent's apologist Horace Walpole allowed that Kent had been followed by "a very able master".

It is estimated that Brown was responsible for over 170 gardens surrounding the finest country houses and estates in Britain. His work still endures at Croome Court (where he also designed the house), Blenheim Palace, Warwick Castle, Harewood House, Bowood House, Milton Abbey (and nearby Milton Abbas village), in traces at Kew Gardens and many other locations. This man who refused work in Ireland because he had not finished England was called "Capability" Brown, because he would characteristically tell his landed clients that their estates had great "capability" for landscape improvement.

His style of smooth undulating grass, which would run straight to the house, clumps, belts and scattering of trees and his serpentine lakes formed by invisibly damming small rivers, were a new style within the English landscape, a "gardenless" form of landscape gardening, which swept away almost all the remnants of previous formally patterned styles.

His landscapes were at the forefront of fashion. They were fundamentally different from what they replaced, the well-known formal gardens of England which were criticized by Alexander Pope and others from the 1710s.

Capability Brown's essays in the field of architecture were a natural outgrowth of his unified picture of the English country house in its setting:

"In Brown's hands the house, which before had dominated the estate, became an integral part of a carefully composed landscape intended to be seen through the eye of a painter, and its design could not be divorced from that of the garden".

Brown's first country house project was the remodeling of Croome Court, Worcestershire, (1751–1752) for the 6th Earl of Coventry. Fisherwick, Staffordshire, Redgrave Hall, Suffolk, and Claremont, Surrey, were classical, while at Corsham his outbuildings are in a Gothick vein. Gothick stable blocks and decorative outbuildings, arches and garden features constituted many of his designs. From 1771 he was assisted in the technical aspects by the master builder Henry Holland, and by Henry's son Henry Holland the architect, whose initial career Brown supported; the younger Holland was increasingly Brown's full collaborator and became Brown's son-in-law in 1773.

Brown's popularity declined rapidly after his death, because his work was seen as a feeble imitation of wild nature. A reaction against the smooth blandness of Brown's landscapes was inevitable: the landscapes lacked the sublime thrill which members of the Romantic generation. During the nineteenth century he was widely criticized, but during the twentieth century his popularity returned. Later landscape architects like William Gilpin would opine that Brown's 'natural curves' were as artificial as the straight lines that were common in French gardens.

 

b) Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was a 17th century natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, also noted for his writings in theology.

Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. He is best known for Boyle's law, which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system. Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry.

Boyle was an alchemist; and believing the transmutation of metals to be a possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of achieving it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689, of the statute of Henry IV against multiplying gold and silver. With all the important work he accomplished in physics – the enunciation of Boyle's law, the discovery of the part taken by air in the propagation of sound, and investigations on the expansive force of freezing water, on specific gravities and refractive powers, on crystals, on electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics, etc. – chemistry was his peculiar and favourite study.

 

6. For what type of paintings are these artists famous:

a) Sir Joshua Reynolds (16 July 1723 – 23 February 1792) was an influential 18th-century English painter, specialising in portraits and promoting the "Grand Style" in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect. He was one of the founders and first President of the Royal Academy. King George III appreciated his merits and knighted him in 1769

Sir Peter Lely (14 September 1618 – 30 November 1680) was a painter of Dutch origin, whose career was nearly all spent in England, where he became the dominant portrait painter to the court.

Lely played a significant role in introducing the mezzotint (меццо-тинто) to Britain, as he realized its possibilities for publicising his portraits. He encouraged Dutch mezzotinters to come to Britain to copy his work, laying the foundations for the English mezzotint tradition.

Mezzotint is a printmaking process of the intaglio (гравировка) family, technically a drypoint method. It was the first tonal method to be used, enabling half-tones to be produced without using line- or dot-based techniques like hatching (щтриховка), cross-hatching (координатная сетка) or stipple (точечный пунктир). Mezzotint achieves tonality by roughening the plate with thousands of little dots made by a metal tool with small teeth, called a "rocker." In printing, the tiny pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean. A high level of quality and richness in the print can be achieved.

 

b) John Robert Cozens (1752 – 14 December 1797) was a British draftsman and painter of romantic watercolour landscapes.

Cozens executed watercolors in curious atmospherical effects and illusions which had some influence on Thomas Girtin and J.M.W. Turner. Indeed, his work is full of poetry. There is a solemn grandeur in his Alpine views and a sense of vastness, a tender tranquillity and a kind of mystery in most of his paintings, leaving parts in his pictures for the imagination of the spectator to dwell on and search into. John Constable called him "the greatest genius that ever touched landscape." On the other hand, Cozens never departed from his primitive, almost rudimentary, manner of painting, which causes several of his works to look very like colored engravings (гравюры).

 

John Crome (December 22, 1768 – April 22, 1821) was an English landscape artist of the Romantic era, one of the principal artists of the "Norwich school". He is known as Old Crome to distinguish him from his son, John Berney Crome, who was also a well-known artist.

Along with John Constable (1776–1837), Crome was one of the earliest English artists to represent identifiable species of trees, rather than generalised forms. His works, renowned for their originality and vision, were inspired by direct observation of the natural world combined with a comprehensive study of Old Masters.

Crome went on to become the founder of the Norwich school of painters, of which John Sell Cotman is another famous member. He worked both in watercolour and oil. His oil paintings alone number in excess of 300. Many can be seen at major galleries around the world, including the Tate Gallery and the Royal Academy, but he is also very well represented in Norwich itself at the Castle Museum and Art Gallery. He also produced etchings (гравюры) and taught art.

 

7. Put these artists in chronological order of birth:

William Hogart (10 November 1697 – 26 October 1764); Joshua Reynolds (16 July 1723 – 23 February 1792); Nhomas Gainsborough (14 May 1727 – 2 August 1788); John Constable (11 June 1776 – 31 March 1837); William Turner (12 November 1789 – 7 August 1862).

 

2) Monuments and Statues.

1. Whose monument or statue stands in:

a) Princes Street is one of the major thoroughfares in central Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, and its main shopping street. It is the southernmost street of Edinburgh's New Town, stretching around 1 mile (1.6 km) from Lothian Road in the west to Leith Street in the east. The street is mostly closed to private cars, with public transport given priority. The street has virtually no buildings on the south side, allowing panoramic views of the Old Town, Edinburgh Castle, and the valley between.

Only the east end of the street is open to all traffic. The bulk of the street is limited to buses and taxis only. During 2009 and again in 2012, parts of the street have been closed to all traffic as part of the Edinburgh Trams construction works.

The Gardens contain the Ross Bandstand (an open-air theatre), a war memorial to U.S. soldiers of Scottish descent and a floral clock, together with other attractions. Two of the main Scottish art galleries, the Royal Scottish Academy and the National Gallery of Scotland, are located at the foot of The Mound. Further along is the Scott Monument, a huge intricate Gothic monument dedicated to Sir Walter Scott, the author of the Waverley Novels, after which is named Waverley station, which lies at the east end of the Gardens, its westward lines dividing them. Next to the station on its north side is the former railway hotel, previously known as the North British Hotel, latterly renamed the Balmoral Hotel, and the North Bridge which sails at high level over the station. The hotel has a counterpart at the extreme west end of Princes Street. The Caledonian Hotel, now the Caledonian Hilton, sits at the north end of Lothian Road. This was built by the Caledonian Railway for their Princes Street Station which closed in the 1960s along with the lines it served.