Geography and environment of Great Britain
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ
«Гомельский государственный
Кафедра теории и практики английского языка
Geography and environment of Great Britain
Исполнитель
студентка группы
Научный руководитель
преподаватель
Гомель 2012
Contents
Introduction …………………………………………..............
1 The British Monarchy…………………...………………………………
2 Members of the British Royal Family………………………………............
2.1 Queen Elizabeth II …………………………………………….............
2.2 Children of the Queen……………………………………………….......
3 History of the Monarchy ……………………………………………………..........
3.1 English Monarchs ………………………………………………………….……11
3.2 Scottish Monarchs ………………….……………………………………….......
3.3 United Kingdom Monarchs ……………………………………………………..15
4 The role of the British monarchy in Commonwealth and the US…………………18
4.1 About the Commonwealth………………………………………………
4.2 The Queen's role in the Commonwealth ………………………………………..18
4.3 The role of the British Monarchy in the UK …………………………………....20
5 Ceremonial and social duties of the British Royal Family………………………...21
5.1 Receptions and Theme Days ……………………………...................
5.2 Charities and Patronages ……………………………………………………..…24
5.3 Royal involvement with charities………………………………………………..
6 The role of the monarch in governing the country.…………………...…………...27
6.1 The role of the Sovereign………………………………………………………
6.2 Queen and the Law, Church, Armed Forces………………………………….....28
7 The Future attitude of the British Monarchy.…………….............………
Conclusion………………………………........
Bibliography ………………………………..................
Appendix A……………………………………………............
Introduction
It is rather difficult to understand the British way of ruling the country. The foundations of the modern monarchy were laid more than a millennium ago, in Anglo-Saxon and Celtic Britain, so its modern form is a stage in an evolution that has been shaped by attitudes toward divorce, the changing role of women, the democratization of society, dynastic intermarriage, financial demands, religious convictions, struggles for economic and political power, and territorial aggrandizement.
Everywhere you go in Britain, you find evidence of this long history. When you visit a stately home, the guide will tell you that ‘Queen Elizabeth slept here’. If you travel around the country, you’ll see the castles that monarchs built as strongholds and the sites of battles where kings fought for power. And you’ll find towns and villages with royal names like King’s Norton, Charlton Kings, and, of all things, Queen Camel.
And the royals are still very much around. The British press and TV news reports often feature items about Queen Elizabeth meeting foreign heads of state or Prince Charles extending his organic farm or speaking out about architecture or the natural environment. The monarchy is still at the heart of British life.
In Britain the Queen is the Head of State, but in fact she doesn’t rule the country as she has no power. The Queen has a formal role as Head of Nation ' She inspires the people , she is the focus of national identity , awards excellence to her citizens , and is known to extend support to the cherished ideals of voluntary and public service She has the support of members of her immediate family for the functions she is obliged to perform . The Queen plays the sterling role to mould the national identity of the country. That is why they often say that the monarch in this country reigns but does not rule. Although the British Sovereign no longer has a political or executive role, he or she continues to play an important part in the life of the nation. The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy: the head of the state is a king or a queen. The title to the Crown derives partly from statute and partly from common law rules of descent. Despite interruptions in the direct line of succession, inheritance has always been the way royal power has passed down the generations, with sons of the sovereign coming before daughters in succeeding to the throne. The present Sovereign is Queen Elisabeth II. The Queen's full title in the United Kingdom is 'Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith'.
As the Head of State, the Queen fulfils different state duties which have developed over a thousand years of history. In practice she is not allowed to actually exercise any authority or even display any preferences.
In law the Queen is head of the executive, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Crown and the established Church of England. The Queen is a symbol of the country history and its traditions. The monarchy’s absolute power has been progressively reduced, the Queen is impartial and acts on the advise of her ministers. The Queen and the Royal family continue to take part in many traditional ceremonies.
An important symbolic role of the monarchy has been to uphold, represent and express certain fundamental values and standards, which are very widely accepted and which in some cases are vital to public well being. Their visits to different parts of Britain and to many other countries attract considerable interests and publicity.
One of the most significant duties of the Queen is that she gains direct contact with people from all walks of life and – as a Head of the Commonwealth – with people from all the countries of the Commonwealth. For example, if we suppose that Britain has an elected Head of State other countries of the Commonwealth will also wish to have elected Heads of State. The Commonwealth will just disappear, it will fall to pieces, in to isolated countries, each having its own Head. From my point of view, it is not the case just because this situation will cause a lot of problems one of which is connected with the status of people in these countries. Maybe, more than a half of them want the Commonwealth to be retained. That is a problem on its own and I have gone too far. Let's return to the Queen.
She and the Royal family also champion many charities in the name of the nation. In the Overseas Territories, the Queen is usually represented by governors responsible to the United Kingdom government for the administration of the countries in which they serve. In addition to these state duties, the Queen has a less formal role as "the Head of Nation". This role of the monarch is symbolic. She embodies national identity, unity and pride, gives a sense of stability and continuity.
''But why the people support the monarchy?''The monarchy has no political power and does not enjoy the same popularity as in the past in early 20th century. But it is still seen as a symbol of national unity. This can be seen as a plus but the monarchy is also a symbol of inherited privilege and as the apex of a deeply divisive class system.
In twenty-first century popularity of the monarchy has been steadily declining in recent decades and most of the younger generations have little regard for the Royal family, raising questions over how long it can exist in a rapidly changing world. There is no doubt that in the past some monarchs have introduced great changes to the country and the nation benefited from their rule. But in the past kings and queens took an active role in ruling the country. Other monarchs were decidedly cruel to their subjects. Nowadays however, the United Kingdom would certainly function well without a monarchy, just as the many democratic republics around the world do. The future of the monarchy, while not yet a pressing issue for the nation may one day boil down to a simple cost-benefit analysis. For many, support of the monarchy is inextricably linked to patriotism.
1 The British Monarchy
Monarchy, form of government in which sovereignty is vested in a single person whose right to rule is generally hereditary and who is empowered to remain in office for life. The power of this sovereign may vary from the absolute to that strongly limited by custom or constitution. Monarchy has existed since the earliest history of humankind and was often established during periods of external threat or internal crisis because it provided a more efficient focus of power than aristocracy or democracy, which tended to diffuse power. Most monarchies appear to have been elective originally, but dynasties early became customary. In primitive times, divine descent of the monarch was often claimed. Deification was general in ancient Egypt, the Middle East, and Asia, and it was also practiced during certain periods in ancient Greece and Rome. A more moderate belief arose in Christian Europe in the Middle Ages; it stated that the monarch was the appointed agent of divine will. This was symbolized by the coronation of the king by a bishop or the pope, as in the Holy Roman Empire. Although theoretically at the apex of feudal power, the medieval monarchs were in fact weak and dependent upon the nobility for much of their power. During the Renaissance and after, there emerged “new monarchs” who broke the power of the nobility and centralized the state under their own rigid rule. Notable examples are Henry VII and Henry VIII of England and Louis XIV of France. The 16th and 17th cent. mark the height of absolute monarchy, which found its theoretical justification in the doctrine of divine right. However, even the powerful monarchs of the 17th cent. were somewhat limited by custom and constitution as well as by the delegation of powers to strong bureaucracies. Such limitations were also felt by the “benevolent despots” of the 18th cent. Changes in intellectual climate, in the demands made upon government in a secular and commercially expanding society, and in the social structure, as the bourgeoisie became increasingly powerful, eventually weakened the institution of monarchy in Europe. The Glorious Revolution in England (1688 year) and the French Revolution (1789 year) were important landmarks in the decline and limitation of monarchical power. Throughout the 19th cent. Royal power was increasingly reduced by constitutional provisions and parliamentary incursions. In the 20th cent., monarchs have generally become symbols of national unity, while real power has been transferred to constitutional assemblies. Over the past 200 years democratic self-government has been established and extended to such an extent that a true functioning monarchy is a rare occurrence in both East and West. Among the few remaining are Brunei, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia. Notable constitutional monarchies include Belgium, Denmark, Great Britain, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Thailand [1, p.12].
2 Members of the British Royal Family
2.1 Queen Elizabeth II
Title: Queen Elizabeth I.I Full Name: Elizabeth Alexandra Mary. Father: George VI. Mother: Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon. Born: April 21, 1926 at 17, Bruton Street, London. Current Age: 85 years, 10 months and 29 days. Married: Prince Philip on November 20, 1947 at Westminster Abbey. Children: Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, Prince Edward.
Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary was born in London on 21 April 1926; she was educated privately, and assumed official duties at 16. During World War II she served in the Auxiliary Territorial Service, and by an amendment to the Regency Act she became a state counsellor on her 18th birthday. On the death of George VI in 1952 she succeeded to the throne while in Kenya with her husband and was crowned on 2 June 1953.
The reign of Queen Elizabeth II since 1952 has spanned a period of rapid and occasionally turbulent change. Britain’s position in the world, her economy, and the very shape and structures of society have all been transformed and many traditional institutions have suffered in the process. Through all this, the path of the Crown has been marked out by The Queen herself, in a prolonged display of unwavering devotion to duty and quiet pragmatism which has met a nationally-felt need, and has won her the unstinting respect and affection of her peoples. As hereditary head of state for Great Britain and Northern Ireland, The Queen has symbolic and formal functions and duties but no direct powers.
Supported by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, to whom she was married on 20 November 1947, The Queen is head of a large family. The first child of the royal marriage and the current heir to the throne is Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales, who was born on 14 November 1948 and was invested as Prince of Wales at Caernarvon Castle on 1 July 1969. He married Lady Diana Spencer ( Princess Diana ) on 29 July 1981; two sons were born to the marriage, Prince William, born 21 June 1982 and Prince Henry ( Prince Harry ), born 15 September 1984. However, the marriage broke down amid widely-publicised bitterness, and a divorce followed. These troubles, together with the divorces of Princess Anne and the Duke of York, were seen by some to diminish the monarchy in public esteem. The death of Diana, Princess of Wales on 31 August 1997 in a car crash in Paris unleashed a wave of hysteria stirred up by the media, and the family have had to suffer relentless intrusion by the world's press into their lives.
Elizabeth II is now the longest reigning British monarch since Queen Victoria, and The Queen’s Golden Jubilee in 2002 was celebrated with enthusiasm and great displays of loyalty [2, p.8](Appendix A)
2.2 Children of the Queen
Title: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Full Name: Philip Mountbatten. Father: Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark. Mother: Princess Alice of Battenberg. Relation to Elizabeth II: Husband. Born: June 10, 1921 at Villa Mon Repos, Corfu, Greece. Current Age: 90 years, 9 months and 10 days. Married: Princess Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth II on November 20, 1947 at Westminster Abbey. Children: Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, Prince Edward.
Philip was born Philippos Prince of Greece and Denmark on the Greek Island of Corfu in 1921. His father was Prince Andrew, younger brother of King Constantine of Greece, and his mother Princess Alice of Battenberg. He is a great-great-grandchild of Queen Victoria though his mother’s family. The monarchy of Greece was overthrown in 1922, and George V sent a Royal Navy ship HMS Calypso to rescue them. The one-year old Philip was carried to safety in an orange box. The family lived in Paris but his parents’ marriage broke up and Philip went to school in England, Germany and then Gordonstoun in Scotland where he was head of the school cricket and hockey teams and became head boy. Princess Elizabeth and Philip first met when they attended the wedding of Philip's cousin, Princess Marina of Greece to The Duke of Kent, who was an uncle of Princess Elizabeth, in 1934.
Philip joined the Royal Navy in 1939 and attended Dartmouth college where as a cadet Philip of Greece he showed round then 13 years old Princess Elizabeth. He saw active service in WW2 in the Mediterranean taking part in the Allied invasion of Sicily, and with the British Pacific fleet was present in Tokyo Bay when the Japanese surrender was signed. He returned to Britain in 1946 and served as a staff officer at Greenwich Naval College. In 1947 he became a naturalised British subject, and adopted the surname Mountbatten, the anglicised version of his mother’s name of Battenberg .
The engagement between Princess Elizabeth and Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten RN was announced on the 9 July 1947 and they were married in Westminster Abbey on 20 November 1947. The day before his wedding, King George VI titled his future son-in-law Philip Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Merioneth, and Baron Greenwich, of Greenwich in the County of London. The ceremony recorded by the BBC was hugely popular and brought a ray of sunshine to the otherwise austere life of post-war Britain. His three surviving sisters who had married German aristocrats were not invited to the wedding. Following their honeymoon the Prince resumed his career in the Navy and the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh lived in Malta.
Title: Prince Charles, Prince of Wales. Full Name: Charles Philip Arthur George. Father: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Mother: Queen Elizabeth II. Relation to Elizabeth II: Son. Born: November 14, 1948 at Buckingham Palace, London. Current Age: 63 years, 4 months and 6 days. Married (1): Diana Spencer on July 29, 1981 at St Paul's Cathedral. Divorced: August 28, 1996.Children: Prince William, Prince Harry. Married (2): Camilla Shand Parker Bowles on April 9, 2005 at The Guildhall, Windsor.
Prince Charles was born in 1948, eldest son of the then Princess Elizabeth and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, the traditional titles for the heir to the throne, when his mother became Queen Elizabeth II in 1952. He attended her coronation. Tutored by a governess until the age of 8, he attended Cheam preparatory school in Berkshire and then Gordonstoun School in Scotland where his father had been at school. He became head boy although he has said that he did not enjoy his time at school. In 1966 he spent two terms at Geelong School in Australia and visited Papua New Guinea.
On leaving school he attended Trinity College at Cambridge University where he studied anthropology and archaeology earning a BA degree. He also attended one term at University of Wales, Aberystwyth, where he studied Welsh, learning enough to make his speech in Welsh during his investiture as Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester at Caernarfon Castle on 1st July 1969. He became the first member of the Royal Family since George 1 to attend a British Government cabinet meeting, and expressed an interest in becoming Governor General of Australia although nothing came of this. His military career included training as a jet pilot at RAF Cranwell, and naval training at Royal Naval College Dartmouth.
His love life has been closely followed by the World’s press, and attachments included Lady Jane Wellesley, Davina Sheffield, Princess Marie Astrid, Lady Sarah Spencer (Diana’s elder sister), Camilla Shand (later Parker-Bowles), and Amanda Knatchbull to whom he proposed. In 1977 he met Lady Diana Spencer while visiting her family home in Althorp, and they were married on 29 July 1981 in St Paul’s Cathedral. She became Princess of Wales and soon became the star attraction of the World’s press who relentlessly followed her. Unprepared for the media hype and commitments of the royal family she fell out with other members of the family, and was allegedly unstable and temperamental. Following the birth of their two sons, Princes William and Harry, the marriage was in trouble and she allegedly had several liaisons. Charles resumed his liaison with Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles and Diana were divorced on 28 August 1996. Camilla became Charles’s companion and following her divorce they were married in a civil ceremony at Windsor Guildhall on 9 April 2005 followed by a service of prayer and dedication in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. She became the Duchess of Cornwall.
Charles’s interests include architecture, inner city renewal, environmental issues and gardening. His promoted ‘green’ environmental views long before they became popular, and runs an organic farming business at his country estate in Gloucestershire with its own organic Duchy brand. He takes a keen interest in philosophy, alternative medicines, religions and visits the Greek Orthodox monasteries of Mount Athos in Greece.
Title: Princess Anne, Princess Royal. Full Name: Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise. Father: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh .Mother: Queen Elizabeth II. Relation to Elizabeth II: Daughter. Born: August 15, 1950 at Clarence House, London. Current Age: 61 years, 7 months and 5 days. Married: Mark Phillips on November 14, 1973 at Westminster Abbey. Divorced: April 28, 1992.Children: Peter Phillips, Zara Phillips. Married: Timothy Laurence on December 12, 1992 at Crathie, Ballater, Aberdeenshire.
Princess Anne was born on 15 August 1950 at Clarence House in London. She is the second child and only daughter of Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip. She was baptised at Buckingham Palace on 21 October 1950 by the Archbishop of York. She is styled Her Royal Highness Princess Anne of Edinburgh. As a child she was more bossy and vivacious than her older brother Charles.
Princess Anne was educated privately at Buckingham Palace, and then at Benenden boarding School in Kent. She attained two A levels but was happiest in her love of the outdoors and horse riding. On leaving Benenden in 1968 she entered public life, and at 20 became president of Save the Children Fund on whose behalf she has worked tirelessly and visited over 70 counties. She is also Commandant-in-Chief of St John Ambulance, founded the Princess Royal Trust for Carers and is an official with over 200 charities. On 13 June 1987, the Queen bestowed her with the title of Princess Royal the title traditionally given to the monarch's eldest daughter. She carries out the most engagements of any member of the Royal Family.
Her boyfriends included Andrew Parker Bowles (later husband of Camilla), and Richard Mead Olympic Champion at three-day eventing. On 14 November 1973 Princess Anne married Mark Phillips in Westminster Abbey, London. He was a Lieutenant and later Captain in the Queen’s Dragoon Guards. He was offered but turned down an Earldom so their children have no courtesy titles. Their son Peter Phillips was born in 1977 and daughter Zara in 1981. In 1974 she was the target of a kidnap attempt in Pall Mall London when a deranged individual tried to bundle her into a car and hold her for ransom. In 1989 the Princess and Mark Phillips announced their intention to separate and they were divorced on 28 April 1992. She remarried Timothy Laurence, a naval Commander, on 12 December 1992 at Crathie Kirk a Church of Scotland church near the Balmoral Estate.
She has always been keen on horses and equitation events. In 1971 she won the individual title at the European Championship three-day event, and was voted the BBC’s Sports Personality of the year. She won a silver medal in the individual and team events at the 1975 European Eventing Championship, and in 1976 participated with the British Team in the Montreal Olympic Games.
Title: Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Full Name: Andrew Albert Christian Edward. Father: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Mother: Queen Elizabeth II. Relation to Elizabeth II: Son. Born: February 19, 1960 at Buckingham Palace, London. Current Age: 52 years, 1 month and 1 day. Married: Sarah Ferguson on July 23, 1986 at Westminster Abbey. Divorced: May 30, 1996. Children: Princess Beatrice, Princess Eugenie.
Prince Andrew is the second son and third child of Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip. He was born on 19 February 1960 in Buckingham Palace, and was named after his paternal grandfather Prince Philip’s father Prince Andrew of Greece. He was the first child born to a reigning British monarch since Queen Victoria’s youngest daughter Princess Beatrice. He was baptised on 8 April 1960.
Prince Andrew was educated at Heatherdown Preparatory School, Berkshire, before like his brother and father before him going to Gordounston School in Scotland. He left with 3 A levels and joined the Royal Navy attending Britannia Royal Naval College at Dartmouth. He undertook the Royal Marine Green Beret course, and learned to fly Gazelle and Sea King helicopters. In 1982 he joined the aircraft carrier HMS Invincible, and saw front line action during the Falklands War flying Anti-Submarine and Anti-Surface warfare missions and search and rescue operations. In 1983 he transferred to Lynx helicopters and 1984 - 1991 saw service aboard HMS Brazen as a flight pilot and as flight commander on HMS Campbletown. He became a Lieutenant Commander in 1992 and commanded a Minehunter HMS Cottesmore. In 1995 he was was senior pilot of 815 Naval Air Squadron, and in 2001 finished his naval career as a Commander in the Ministry of Defence in London. He is Colonel-in-Chief of a number of regiments including Canadian regiments.
He has known Sarah Ferguson since childhood though their families shared interest in polo, and on 23 July 1986 Prince Andrew and Sarah were married in Westminster Abbey. He was created Duke of York, Earl of Inverness and Baron Killyleagh titles previously held by his maternal grandfather George VI. Sarah became Duchess of York. They have two children Princess Beatrice born in 1988, and Princess Eugenie born in 1990. Sarah received considerably media attention but he was frequently away on naval duties and the marriage broke down. They were separated in March 1992, and following pictures in the press of Sarah with her American financial advisor, they were divorced on 30 May 1996 although their friendship continues and they remain on good terms.
The Duke of York currently works for the UK Department of Trade and Industry, and travels throughout the world representing the UK at trade and export events. He is Commodore of the Royal Yacht club, Trustee of the National Maritime Museum, and patron of charities including the Deaf Association, and National Society of the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. He also attends official ceremonies on behalf of the Queen.
Title: Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex. Full Name: Edward Antony Richard Louis. Father: Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Mother: Queen Elizabeth II. Relation to Elizabeth II: Son. Born: March 10, 1964 at Buckingham Palace, London. Current Age: 48 years and 10 days. Married: Sophie Rhys-Jones on June 19, 1999 at St. George's Chapel, Windsor. Children: Lady Louise Windsor, Viscount Severn.
Prince Edward is the third son and youngest child of Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip. He was born at Buckingham Palace on 10 March 1964, and christened at Windsor Castle on 2 May 1964. He was educated at Heatherdown Preparatory School, Ascot, and like his father and two brothers went on to Gordonstoun School in Scotland where he was head boy in his last term.
In 1982 he spent a gap year as a house tutor at the Collegiate School, Wanguri, in New Zealand. On his return he attended Jesus College, University of Cambridge and graduated in 1986 with a degree in History. His interests included theatrical productions. On leaving Cambridge he joined the Royal Marines but did not take to the army life. He resigned his army commission in 1987, and joined Andrew Lloyd Weber’s Really Useful theatrical company. In 1993 he formed the Ardent Television company and was involved in documentaries about the Royal Family, but in 2002 stepped down to concentrate on his royal duties in support of the Queen.
He met Sophie Rhys-Jones in 1993 while she was working in public relations, and they were married at St George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 19 June 1999. On their wedding Edward was created Earl of Wessex, and Sophie became Countess of Wessex. They have two children Lady Louise Windsor born 8 November 2003, and James Viscount Severn born 17 December 2007 [3, p.23].
3 History of the Monarchy
3.1 English Monarchs
Anglo Saxons. In the Dark Ages during the fifth and sixth centuries, communities of peoples in Britain inhabited homelands with ill-defined borders. Such communities were organised and led by chieftains or kings. Following the final withdrawal of the Roman legions from the provinces of Britannia in around 408 these small kingdoms were left to preserve their own order and to deal with invaders. By 650 , the British Isles were a patchwork of many kingdoms founded from native or immigrant communities and led by powerful chieftains or kings. Until the late seventh century, a series of warrior-kings in turn established their own personal authority over other kings, usually won by force or through alliances and often cemented by dynastic marriages. According to the later chronicler Bede, the most famous of these kings was Ethelberht, king of Kent, who married Bertha, the Christian daughter of the king of Paris. the eighth century, smaller kingdoms in the British Isles continued to fall to more powerful kingdoms, which claimed rights over whole areas and established temporary primacies: Dalriada in Scotland, Munster and Ulster in Ireland. In England, Mercia and later Wessex came to dominate, giving rise to the start of the monarchy. Throughout the Anglo-Saxon period the succession was frequently contested, by both the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy and leaders of the settling Scandinavian communities. It was the threat of invading Vikings which galvanised English leaders into unifying their forces, and, centuries later, the Normans who successfully invaded in 1066 were themselves the descendants of Scandinavian 'Northmen'.
The Normans came to govern England following one of the most famous battles in English history: the Battle of Hastings in 1066 year. Four Norman kings presided over a period of great change and development for the country. In religious affairs, the Gregorian reform movement gathered pace and forced concessions, while the machinery of government developed to support the country while Henry was fighting abroad. Meanwhile, the social landscape altered dramatically, as the Norman aristocracy came to prominence. Many of the nobles struggled to keep a hold on their interests in both Normandy and England, as divided rule meant the threat of conflict. This was the case when William the Conqueror died. His eldest son, Robert, became Duke of Normandy, while the next youngest, William, became king of England. Their younger brother Henry would become king on William II's death. The uneasy divide continued until Henry captured and imprisoned his elder brother. The question of the succession continued to weigh heavily over the remainder of the period. Henry's son died, and his nominated heir Matilda was denied the throne by her cousin, Henry's nephew, Stephen. There then followed a period of civil war. Matilda married Geoffrey Plantagenet of Anjou, who took control of Normandy. The duchy was therefore separated from England once again. A compromise was eventually reached whereby the son of Matilda and Geoffrey would be heir to the English crown, while Stephen's son would inherit his baronial lands. It meant that in 1154 Henry II would ascend to the throne as the first undisputed king in over 100 years - evidence of the dynastic uncertainty of the Norman period [4, p.10].
Angevins. Henry II, the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Henry I's daughter Matilda, was the first in a long line of 14 Plantagenet kings, stretching from Henry II's accession through to Richard III's death in 1485 year. Within that line, however, four distinct Royal Houses can be identified: Angevin, Plantagenet, Lancaster and York. The first Angevin King, Henry II, began the period as arguably the most powerful monarch in Europe, with lands stretching from the Scottish borders to the Pyrenees. In addition, Ireland was added to his inheritance, a mission entrusted to him by Pope Adrian IV. As with many of his predecessors, Henry II spent much of his time away from England fighting abroad. This was taken to an extreme by his son Richard, who spent only 10 months of a ten-year reign in the country due to his involvement in the crusades. The last of the Angevin kings was John, whom history has judged harshly. By 1205 year, six years into his reign, only a fragment of the vast Angevin empire acquired by Henry II remained. John quarrelled with the Pope over the appointment of the Archbishop of Canterbury, eventually surrendering. He was also forced to sign the Magna Carta in 1215 year, which restated the rights of the church, the barons and all in the land.
The Plantagenet period was dominated by three major conflicts at home and abroad. Edward I attempted to create a British empire dominated by England, conquering Wales and pronouncing his eldest son Prince of Wales, and then attacking Scotland. In the reign of Edward III the Hundred Years War began, a struggle between England and France. At the end of the Plantagenet period, the reign of Richard II saw the beginning of the long period of civil feuding known as the War of the Roses. For the next century, the crown would be disputed by two conflicting family strands, the Lancastrians and the Yorkists. The period also saw the development of new social institutions and a distinctive English culture. Amidst the order of learning and art, however, were disturbing new phenomena. The outbreak of Bubonic plague or the 'Black Death' served to undermine military campaigns and cause huge social turbulence, killing half the country's population. The price rises and labour shortage which resulted led to social unrest, culminating in the Peasants' Revolt in 1381 year.
Lancastrians. The accession of Henry IV sowed the seeds for a period of unrest which ultimately broke out in civil war. Fraught by rebellion and instability after his usurpation of Richard II, Henry IV found it difficult to enforce his rule. His son, Henry V, fared better, defeating France in the famous Battle of Agincourt (1415 year) and staking a powerful claim to the French throne. Success was short-lived with his early death. By the reign of the relatively weak Henry VI, civil war broke out between rival claimants to the throne, dating back to the sons of Edward III. The Lancastrian dynasty descended from John of Gaunt, third son of Edward III, whose son Henry deposed the unpopular Richard II. Yorkist claimants such as the Duke of York asserted their legitimate claim to the throne through Edward III's second surviving son, but through a female line. The Wars of the Roses therefore tested whether the succession should keep to the male line or could pass through females. Captured and briefly restored, Henry VI was captured and put to death, and the Yorkist faction led by Edward IV gained the throne
The Yorkist conquest of the Lancastrians in 1461 year did not put an end to the Wars of the Roses, which rumbled on until the start of the sixteenth century. Family disloyalty in the form of Richard III's betrayal of his nephews, the young King Edward V and his brother, was part of his downfall. Henry Tudor, a claimant to the throne of Lancastrian descent, defeated Richard III in battle and Richard was killed. With the marriage of Henry to Elizabeth, the sister of the young Princes in the Tower, reconciliation was finally achieved between the warring houses of Lancaster and York in the form of the new Tudor dynasty, which combined their respective red and white emblems to produce the Tudor rose.
Tudors. The five sovereigns of the Tudor dynasty are among the most well-known figures in Royal history. Of Welsh origin, Henry VII succeeded in ending the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York to found the highly successful Tudor house. Henry VII, his son Henry VIII and his three children Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I ruled for 118 eventful years.
During this period, England developed into one of the leading European colonial powers, with men such as Sir Walter Raleigh taking part in the conquest of the New World. Nearer to home, campaigns in Ireland brought the country under strict English control.
Culturally and socially, the Tudor period saw many changes. The Tudor court played a prominent part in the cultural Renaissance taking place in Europe, nurturing all-round individuals such as William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser and Cardinal Wolsey. The Tudor period also saw the turbulence of two changes of official religion, resulting in the martyrdom of many innocent believers of both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. The fear of Roman Catholicism induced by the Reformation was to last for several centuries and to play an influential role in the history of the Succession [5, p.67].
3.2 Scottish Monarchs
The early Scottish Monarchs. At one time, Scotland was occupied by five different peoples. The Picts lived in the large area north of the rivers Forth and Clyde. The Scots, from Ireland, made their home in Argyll in the fifth and sixth centuries. The Angles held Lothian, the ancient Britons had retreated to Strathclyde, and, in the ninth century, the invading Norsemen settled in Orkney, Shetland, Caithness, Sutherland and the Western Isles. The unification of these different peoples began in the mid-ninth century, when Kenneth MacAlpin became king of both Picts and Scots. The Scots were to become dominant over the majority of the country, although alternative power-bases existed until the end of the Middle Ages - for example, in the Norse Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland.
Descendants of Malcolm III. At the start of the twelfth century, Scotland saw a religious revival and improved administration under David I, the most successful of Malcolm Canmore's sons to become king. He organised the building of the great Border abbeys, the granting of town charters and the first standard coinage. In this period and later, the close relationship of Scottish kings with the English court, reinforced by marriage, led to the expansion of English as the language of government and the rise of Anglo-Norman aristocracy in Scotland. By the end of the thirteenth century, quarrels among Scottish nobles about who should inherit the Throne after the death of Alexander III led to the aggressive intervention of King Edward I of England and the Wars of Independence. A nobleman from Renfrewshire, William Wallace, led the struggle for Scottish independence from England, winning an important battle against the English at Stirling Bridge in 1297 year, but he was ultimately executed in London. The conflict with England was not finished yet, and lasted on and off for the next 300 years.
Bruces. Robert the Bruce, descendant of one of the original contestants for the Scottish throne, took up the struggle for Scotland's independence after the death of William Wallace, and had himself crowned King of Scotland. at Bannockburn in 1314 and the 'Declaration of Arbroath' in 1320 year provided justification for Bruce's assumption of the Scottish throne. At the same time he faced opposition from rival claimants to the throne and accusations that Bruce himself had not always acted in a straight-forward manner.
The Stewarts. The Stewart dynasty descended from King Robert I's daughter and her husband, Walter the Steward. Despite early unrest and weak government caused by several Stewart kings succeeding as minors, the dynasty flourished for over three centuries. During this time, Scotland moved forward to become a modern and prosperous nation. Stewart monarchs such as King James IV and VI were Renaissance patrons of artistic, scientific, commercial, religious and political endeavour, sponsoring figures including the poet Robert Henryson and humanist George Buchanan. It was through the Stewart dynasty that the two thrones of England and Scotland - and later the governments - came to be united. The 'Marriage of the Thistle and the Rose' took place at Stirling Castle in 1503 between King James IV and Princess Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII of England. This union of the Scottish and English Royal families eventually led in 1603 to the succession of a Stewart to the throne of England [6, p.33].
3.3 United Kingdom Monarchs
The Stuarts were the first kings of the United Kingdom. King James I of England who began the period was also King James VI of Scotland, thus combining the two thrones for the first time. The Stuart dynasty reigned in England and Scotland from 1603 to 1714, a period which saw a flourishing Court culture but also much upheaval and instability, of plague, fire and war. It was an age of intense religious debate and radical politics. Both contributed to a bloody civil war in the mid-seventeenth century between Crown and Parliament (the Cavaliers and the Roundheads), resulting in a parliamentary victory for Oliver Cromwell and the dramatic execution of King Charles I. The Restoration of the Crown was soon followed by another 'Glorious' Revolution. William and Mary of Orange ascended the throne as joint monarchs and defenders of Protestantism, followed by Queen Anne, the second of James II's daughters. The end of the Stuart line with the death of Queen Anne led to the drawing up of the Act of Settlement in 1701 year, which provided that only Protestants could hold the throne.
The Hanoverians came to power in difficult circumstances that looked set to undermine the stability of British society. The first of their Kings, George I, was only 52nd in line to the throne, but the nearest Protestant according to the Act of Settlement. Two descendants of James II, the deposed Stuart king, threatened to take the throne, and were supported by a number of 'Jacobites' throughout the realm. For all that, the Hanoverian period was remarkably stable, not least because of the longevity of its kings. From 1714 year through to 1837 year, there were only five monarchs, one of whom, George III, remains the longest reigning king in British History.
Britain's first 'Prime' Minister, Robert Walpole, dates from this period, and income tax was introduced. Towards the end of the Hanoverian period, the Great Reform Act was passed, which amongst other things widened the electorate. It was also in this period that Britain came to acquire much of her overseas empire, despite the loss of the American colonies, largely through foreign conquest in the various wars of the century. By the end of the Hanoverian period, the British Empire covered a third of the globe.
The House of Windsor came into being in 1917 year, when the name was adopted as the British Royal Family's official name by a proclamation of King George V, replacing the historic name of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. It remains the family name of the current Royal Family. The present Queen has familial ties with most of the monarchs in Europe. Download a family tree showing the relationships of The Queen to European monarchies. During the twentieth century, kings and queens of the United Kingdom have fulfilled the varied duties of constitutional monarchy. One of their most important roles has been acting as national figureheads lifting public morale during the devastating wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45. The period saw the modernisation of the monarchy in tandem with many social changes which have taken place over the past 90 years. George V adopted the new relatively new medium of radio to broadcast across the Empire at Christmas. During this period, British monarchs have also played a vital part in promoting international relations. The Queen retains close links with former colonies in her role as Head of the Commonwealth.
The Late Princess.25 December 1901 - 29 October 2004. Her Royal Highness Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester died peacefully in her sleep on the evening of 29 October 2004, at Kensington Palace, London. Princess Alice was the widow of the late Duke of Gloucester, third son of George V; the mother of the present Duke of Gloucester; and the aunt of The Queen. Passing away two months short of her 103rd birthday, she had a long, adventurous and eventful life. Find out about the life and work of Princess Alice in this section. Princess Alice undertook public duties almost up until the end of her life. In her 99th year Princess Alice retired from official engagements away from Kensington Palace, although she continued to receive family and friends in the comfort of her home and, occasionally, representatives from her regiments and charitable organisations. Princess Alice's 100th birthday was marked on 12 December 2001 with a special gathering at Kensington Palace. Many members of the Royal Family, including The Queen, Princess Margaret, The Prince of Wales, and The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester and their family, gathered at Kensington Palace for a unique birthday party. With Princess Alice as guest of honour, they watched a military parade by the King's Own Scottish Borderers, of whom Princess Alice has been Colonel-in-Chief for more than 60 years. The band played music which included a special birthday composition and “Happy Birthday” [7, p.22].
4 The role of the British Monarchy in Commonwealth and the US
4.1 About the Commonwealth
After 60 years of its existence, the Commonwealth is a remarkable organisation which remains a major force for change in the world today. The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 54 independent countries, almost all of which were formerly under British rule. The origins of the Commonwealth come from Britain's former Empire. Many of the members of the Commonwealth were territories which had historically come under British rule at various times by settlement, conquest or cession. The administration of such colonies evolved in different ways, to reflect the different circumstances of each territory. After achieving independence, India was the first of a number of countries which decided that, although they wished to become republics, they still wanted to remain within the Commonwealth. To reconcile these aims, the 1949 year London Declaration recognised King George VI as Head of the Commonwealth. Following his death, the Commonwealth leaders recognised Queen Elizabeth II in that capacity [8, p.32].
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