Сравнительная характеристика архитектуры средневиковой и современной англии

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ  РФ

РОССИЙСКИЙ  ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ  УНИВЕРСИТЕТ им.И.КАНТА

ФАКУЛЬТЕТ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ И  МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНОЙ КОММУНИКАЦИИ

КАФЕДРА ТЕОРИИ И МЕТОДИКИ ПРЕПОДАВАНИЯ

ПЕРВОГО ИНОСТРАННОГО ЯЗЫКА 
 
 
 

СРАВНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА АРХИТЕКТУРЫ

СРЕДНЕВЕКОВОЙ И СОВРЕМЕННОЙ АНГЛИИ 

THE COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTIC OF ARCHITECTURE

OF MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ENGLAND 
 
 
 

КУРСОВАЯ РАБОТА 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

РУКОВОДИТЕЛЬ:

Заячковская Ольга Олеговна 
 
 
 

РАБОТУ  ВЫПОЛНИЛА:

Студентка ФЛиМК,

2-го курса, группы 1АТМ

Екатерина Зубарева 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Калининград

2009

Contents

1. Introduction. Architecture, definition ….…….…………………………………..3
2. The architecture of Early England ………………………………………………..4

1. Anglo-Saxon Architecture ………….……………………..……………...4
2. Early English Gothic Architecture ...……………………………………...7

3. Medieval Architecture ……….....…………………………………………………8

1. Romanesque architecture in England ..……………………………………9
2. Gothic Revival Architecture...…………………………………………...10
3. Tudor Architecture in England 1500-1575 ...……………………………12
4. Elizabethan Architecture in England 1550-1625 ...……………………...14
5. Georgian Architecture …...………………………………………………15
6. Victorian Art and Architecture …...……………………………………..16
7. Palladian Architecture ...…………………………………………………17
8. Regency Architecture …...……………………………………………….18

4. New World – new architecture ...…………………………………………….…..19

1. The Barrier on the Thames ………………………………………………19
2. The London Bridge-Tower ……………………………………………...20
3. Sent-Mary X, 30 …………………………………………………………21

5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
7. Appendix…………………………………………………………………………34

      Introduction

     Architecture – the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials is related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.

     The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent.

     Until the 20th century there were three great developments in architectural construction—the post-and-lintel system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th century new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures.  

Anglo-Saxon Architecture

     England is not blessed with an abundance of surviving Anglo-Saxon buildings. There is good reason for this scarcity; the Anglo-Saxon period was one beset by frequent warfare and violent invasions, particularly by the Vikings in the period 800-950. These invaders, quite naturally, burned and destroyed most of the settlements they came across, in their search for plunder and martial glory. For this reason most surviving examples of Anglo-Saxon architecture date from either 600-725 or 900-1050.

     Unfortunately for posterity, most Saxon buildings were constructed of wood with wattle and daub walls. The depredations of the Danes left very few of these flammable buildings standing. The only buildings the Anglo-Saxons tended to build in more permanent stone were their monasteries and churches.

     There are two regions where the earliest Saxon work is concentrated; in the southeast around the county of Kent and in Northumbria. In Kent the best surviving churches are those of St. Peter and St. Paul, Canterbury (c. 600), and St. Peter-on-the-Wall, Bradwell (c. 660). These churches are heavily influenced by the Roman basilcan tradition, with a rounded chancel in the east and plain walls. Look appendix #1

     In Northumbria the Celtic churches at Escomb, County Durham (c. 690) and the monastic buildings at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, Tyne and Wear (c. 675). These buildings betray their Celtic origins, with tall, aisles naves and a rectangular chancel. After the Synod of Whidbey (664) swung the pendulum of power towards Roman Christian observance, the northern churches took up the basilcan plan, as in the crypt at Hexham, Northumbria (674).

     Surprisingly few large churches remain from the later period of Saxon building (900-1050). The larger buildings, particularly the monasteries, were generally rebuilt in the Norman period and little Saxon work remains above ground. The smaller churches are extremely simple in layout; basically a simple nave divided from a rectangular chancel by a narrow arch. Examples include St. Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, and Boarhound, Hampshire.

     Saxon churches are generally small in scale, showing none of the inclination towards grandeur exhibited by the later Norman builders. Doors and window openings are extremely simple, with very few decorative elements. Though some windows are low triangles, more often they are narrow slit openings with a simple rounded top. When the openings were larger they were often supported on short pillars of plain stone or simple balusters. Look appendix #2

     The Anglo-Saxon's put a lot of energy into tower building in their church architecture, and often Saxon towers are the earliest surviving part of English parish churches. The towers began as a defensive structure; they enabled inhabitants of a village to gain a high lookout point and an easily defensible position to ward off attacks. Saxon towers often had rooms high up which were reached by a ladder. The ladder could then be drawn up when danger threatened.

     One characteristic of Anglo-Saxon stonework should be noted; they often used long strips of vertical stone, called "pilaster strips", in the exterior walls of their churches. Often these stones form a simple criss-cross pattern. Look appendix #3

     At corners the Saxons frequently used alternate horizontal and vertical stones. This pattern, sometimes called "long-and-short work", is easily distinguished from the more common Norman pattern of alternating horizontal stones.

     Another common Anglo-Saxon element, particularly in the north, is the stone cross. These crosses were often used to mark points where paths intersected, though they were later used as a gathering place for religious observance. Crosses may have been put up at sites which were already regarded as sacred in pagan worship. Later on, churches were built at the same spots, preserving a continuity of worship. Some of the finest crosses still to be seen are at Ilkley (West Yorkshire), Bewcastle, Gosforth, and Irton (Cambria), and Bakewell (Derbyshire). Look appendix #4

     Although there are local variations in cross design, the circle cross, like that at Durham, Cambria, was a widely used pattern. In a circle cross the arms of a stone cross extend just to, or slightly beyond, a circle of protective stone. Similar circle crosses can be found in other places with strong Celtic traditions; in Wales and Ireland.

     As mentioned above, most domestic structures in the Saxon period were built in wood. Even the halls of nobles were simple affairs, with a central fire and a hole in the roof to let the smoke escape. Even the largest buildings rarely had more than one floor, and one room. Even the best archaeological remains of domestic buildings from the Anglo-Saxon period offer little more than post holes to view, which indicate the size of the hall, but little more. Look appendix #5

     Buildings vary widely in size, from 10 x 12 ft to as much as 75 x 260 feet. Most are square or rectangular, though some round houses have been found. Frequently these buildings have sunken floors; a shallow pit over which a plank floor was suspended. The pit may have been used for storage, but more likely was filled with straw for winter insulation. A variation on the sunken floor design is found in towns, where the "basement" may be as deep as 9 feet, suggesting a storage or work area below a suspended floor.

     Another common design was simple post framing, with heavy posts set directly into the ground, supporting the roof. The space between the posts was filled in with wattle and daub, or occasionally, planks. The floors were generally packed earth, though planks were sometimes used. Cruck framing, where two large timbers are bent together to form a peak, was also used, though this technique became much more common in the Norman period.

Early English Gothic Architecture

     The Early English period (1180-1275) period marks the first flowering of English Gothic. The Gothic style evolved in France; indeed it was first called "The French Style", beginning in the middle of the 12th century.

     Early English emphasizes height, as if the builders were reaching for the sky. In a sense, they were, as church building was a symbolic expression of religious aspiration. Church architecture in particular had to symbolize Christian thought to a largely illiterate population. Thus even decorative touches such as carvings and statues of saints had to tell a story to people who could not read.

     The major distinction between the Early English and the Norman, or Romanesque period, which preceded it, is the use of the pointed arch. The pointed arch allowed a whole range of new building expression to take place; arches could span greater distances, allowing vaults to be taller and wider. The arch could support greater weight, allowing walls to be thinner and pierced by wider window openings. This in turn encouraged the use of stained glass. Look appendix #27.

     The simple buttresses of the Norman period gave way to flying buttresses, which distributed the weight and thrust of roofs and walls right down to the ground. These flying buttresses may be visible over the aisles, but just as often were concealed in the aisle roof. Another variation on the Early English buttress is the "Oxford buttress", set diagonally at corners. Look appendix #28.

     The massive columns of the Romanesque period were replaced with thin clusters of shafts, often built of dark Pubic marble. The capitals of shafts were often richly carved, with highly stylized foliage designs being popular. The richness of these carvings was due in part to the introduction of the chisel in stone carving. Previously, carving had been done with axes, necessitating low relief and fairly simple designs. Look appendix #29.

     Early in the 13th century windows were primarily of a simple, lancet design, either single or grouped together. Later designs favored two or three lights grouped under a single dripstone.  Look appendix #30.

     Where the hood molding (dripstone) followed a pointed design, echoing the lines of the windows, the architects put small ornamental holes in the space between the molding and the lancets. This approach is called Plate Tracery (see drawing). As plate tracery developed, the small holes became more elaborate, evolving into ornate trefoil and quatrefoil designs. Look appendix #31.

     The most complete example of Early English is without a doubt to be seen at Salisbury Cathedral. Salisbury is unique in that it was built within a short time span (c1200-1275), thus its architectural style, with the exception of the 14th century tower and spire, is fairly uncluttered by later additions and alterations.

Medieval Architecture

     Art in the middle ages was inseparable from religion. It was infused with spiritual symbolism and meaning. The purpose of art was to awe and inspire the viewer with the grandeur of God. It also served to symbolize what people believed. Pope Gregory the Great, he of the Gregorian chants, said, "Painting can do for the illiterate what writing does for those who read."

     The mission of the sculptor, whose work was seen almost exclusively adorning church buildings, was to educate as well as decorate. He brought Biblical tales and moral lessons to life in stone. Carvings were not just religious, however. Everywhere you look there is evidence of pre-Christian symbology in church sculpture; animals’ real and fanciful, scenes of everyday life, and the pagan "Green man" peering out from amongst carefully wrought leaves and vines of stone. Sculpture burst forth gloriously in the Romanesque era, with little regard for classical conventions of proportion of figures.

     At the beginning of the Norman era the style of architecture that was in vogue was known as Romanesque, because it copied the pattern and proportion of the architecture of the Roman Empire. The chief characteristics of the Romanesque style were barrel vaults, round arches, thick piers, and few windows. Look appendix #9

     These early Norman churches were not always as stark as they seem today, however. In their heyday the church walls were hung with tapestries or painted richly. The statues of the saints were gilded, and the service books were inlaid with gold, jewels, and ivory. Chalices and reliquaries were encrusted with gems.

     Beginning in 12th century France a new style of architecture and decoration emerged. At the time it was called simply "The French Style", but later Renaissance critics, appalled at the abandonment of classical line and proportion, derisively called it "Gothic". This was a reference to the imagined lack of culture of the barbarian tribes, including the Goths, which had ransacked Rome in the twilight of the Roman Empire.

     Gothic architecture is light, spacious, and graceful. Advances in architectural technique learned from contacts with the Arab world during the Crusades led to innovations such as the pointed arch, ribbed vault, and the buttress. Heavy Romanesque piers were replaced by slender clusters of columns. Window sizes grew enormously, as did the height of vaults and spires.

     Sculpture became free standing rather than being incorporated in columns. The new expanse of window space was filled with gloriously rich colored glass. The easiest point of reference to look for in a Gothic church is the pointed arch, seen in window openings and doors. Also, the later Gothic churches had very elaborate decoration, especially the "tracery", or stonework supporting the stained glass windows.

Romanesque architecture in England

     The Norman invaders of England introduced their own style of building into their new island domain. Although elements of Romanesque style had been used in England before the Conquest (as in Edward the Confessor's Westminster Abbey), Norman Romanesque marked such a radical departure from the Anglo-Saxon traditions that it must be considered on its own.

     The most obvious characteristic of the Norman Romanesque is its reliance on sheer bulk. Everything is larger, more solid, and carries with it an air of permanence very much at odds with earlier Saxon work. Cathedral and castle walls were as thick as 24 feet at the base.

     Although the piers which carry the weight of Romanesque buildings may be rounded, polygonal, or compound, they utilize mass to do their job. In part, the very simple style of Norman Romanesque may attribute to the fact that the builders had to utilize untrained Saxon labor; laborers who had a tradition of building in wood, not stone. Look appendix #6

     Yet the mass of these early piers may be deceiving. Often the piers are simple brick or masonry shells, with a hollow interior filled with rubble. Essentially the Normans never used two stones when one would do. Look appendix #7

     Early Norman Romanesque builders used barrel vaulting almost exclusively. To visualize a barrel vault, imagine cutting a wooden barrel down the centre lengthwise. The simple rounded shape of the barrel vault helped distribute the weight of walls and roof. Unfortunately, the distance which could be spanned by barrel vaulting was not great. Look appendix #8

     Decorative elements were few in the 11th century; the most distinctive being the Norman chevron (zigzag) pattern, most frequently found on the recessed orders framing doors and windows. Other decoration also relies on simple geometric patterns. In the 12th century you see more elaborate decoration appearing, such as four-pointed stars, lozenges, and scallop shapes.

     These decorative elements were carved in shallow relief; it is only as the 13th century nears that you see deeply cut carvings appear. Subject matter for carvings covered Biblical scenes, but also human, animal, and floral shapes. These carvings are most common on capitals.

     The most definitive example of Romanesque style in England may be seen at Durham Cathedral, where the Norman work is largely unaltered by later additions. At Durham also you can see the first attempts at ribbed vaulting which would later evolve into the full-blown Gothic style in the 13th century.

     Of non-ecclesiastical work, the best surviving example of Romanesque architecture is probably the White Tower at the Tower of London. This stone keep at the core of the complex of buildings we know as the Tower of London was begun in 1078. In particular, the Chapel of St. John in the Tower shows in superb simplicity the rounded Romanesque architecture.

Gothic Architecture in England

     Gothic architecture in Britain has been neatly divided into 4 periods, or styles. The person who did the dividing that has been obediently followed by subsequent generations of writers and historians was Thomas Rickman (1776-1841). In his 1817 work "An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation" Rickman labeled the styles Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. Look appendix #32.

     Like any classification system in the arts these styles cannot be dogmatically assigned dates, but for the sake of simplicity let's do it anyway.

     The term "Gothic" itself needs some explaining. The original style of building - one might call it a philosophy of architecture - sprang up in the Ile de France, and was known during the middle Ages as "the French Style".

     It was not until the 16th century that art critic Giorgio Vasari derisively compared medieval architecture to the barbarism (and presumed lack of taste) of the Goths who had ravaged Rome. It was only then that the term "Gothic" came into vogue.

     So what were the characteristics of a Gothic building? Generally speaking, Gothic architecture emphasized strong vertical lines, high vaulted ceilings, minimal wall space, pointed window and door openings, and buttressed walls. But these characteristic Gothic themes did not spring into being overnight. Let's see how the style of Gothic architecture evolved in Britain.

     The Norman Gothic period (1066-1200) wasn't a whole lot different from Gothic elsewhere in Europe. The British temperament had yet to stamp its own mark on the new "French style".

     The buildings of this time are transitional - many still have the thick piers and rounded window openings of the earlier Romanesque style. Vaulting and decoration are simple; there is little sign of the elaborate stonework to come. Some good examples of the Norman Gothic period are: Durham Cathedral, Wells Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral (west tower 1150-75). Look appendix #34

     It is in the Early English period (1200-1275) that the Gothic style became truly adapted by English craftsmen/architects. This period is also called "Lancet", referring to the pointed lancet windows (narrow, untraceried) that characterize it. Form is still austere and proportion is magnificently simple.

     The main points of Early English are: quadripartite ribbing in vaults, slender towers topped with spires, lancet windows - both single and grouped - and piers with narrow, clustered shafts. The finest example of Early English is to be found at Salisbury Cathedral.

       Decorated Gothic (1275-1375) - aka Geometric, Curvilinear, and Flamboyant - These terms describe primarily the fanciful tracery and ornamentation found in the window heads during this time. Windows were wider than the earlier lancet openings. Look appendix #35.

     This widening and the lessening in wall area that naturally accompanied it was made possible by the invention of the flying buttress. Improved vaulting techniques also helped take the strain of supporting the building's weight off the walls, which could then become little more than shells with broad window openings. Stone decoration was rich and varied, and window glass more colorful. Stone carvings and paintings abound. The best example of the Decorated period you can visit today is at Exeter Cathedral.

     The final flourishing of Gothic in Britain was the Perpendicular period (1375-1530+). The name suggests its chief characteristic - strong vertical lines in window tracery and wall paneling. Vaults were elaborate fan shapes, and the flying buttress became a flowing, decorative feature (as well as supplying its essential supporting strength). Look appendix #36.

     Towers in particular were elaborately decorated and pinnacled, and windows became massive, traceries spider-webs of stone like lace. Wall space was at a minimum, which had the effect of introducing a wonderful feeling of light and spaciousness into the interior of these buildings. Some of the many excellent Perpendicular Gothic buildings to see today include King's College Chapel, Cambridge, (1446-1515), Henry VII's chapel at Westminster Abbey (1503-19), and Bath Abbey (1501-39). The naves of Canterbury Cathedral and Winchester Cathedral were also rebuilt in the Perpendicular style during this time.

     Most parish churches in Britain date from the Medieval Gothic period, and it can be a fascinating exercise to trace the changes in style as the church was remodeled over time. You can often find simple Early English elements cheek-by-jowl with Decorated and Perpendicular additions. Look appendix #37

Tudor Architecture in England 1500-1575

     One of the most startling transformations in the history of English architecture took place in the Tudor period. It was not, however, a transformation in style. Buildings were still largely Gothic in form; at least during the first half century of the Tudor period. Instead the transformation was a social one; building effort now went towards secular, rather than ecclesiastical buildings. Look appendix #15.

     There are several reasons for this change. One is simple; there were plenty of churches for the needs of the population of England. More profoundly, the church was no longer the force it had been in the medieval period. The growing unpopularity of the church, with its perceived worldliness and wealth, meant that those with money to spend now spent it on themselves.

     Curiously, changes in architectural style resulted in buildings shrinking; becoming more intimate. Rather than the move towards spaciousness so evident in the late Gothic period, Tudor architecture focused on details. Windows and doors were smaller, but more ornately decorated, more complex. The smartly pointed arch of the Gothic period gave way to the flattened Tudor arch. The most striking window treatment to emerge in the Tudor period is the oriel, a projecting, multi-sided window cantilevered out from an upper floor, and supported on a bracket or corbel from beneath.

     Chimneys and enclosed fireplaces became common for the first time. Indeed, the Tudor chimney is one of the most striking aspects of this period. One of the reasons for the increased use of chimneys was the widespread adoption of coal as fuel. Previously wood smoke was allowed to escape from the interior through a simple hole in the roof. Now, the increased smoke from coal made necessary evolved forms of fireplaces, flues, and chimneys to get the smoke away from the living space. Chimney stacks were often clustered in groups, and the individual chimney columns were curved, twisted, and decorated with chequer board patterns of different-colored bricks. Look appendix #16.

     And that brings up a second noticeable characteristic of Tudor architecture; the use of brick in building. Spreading from East Anglia, where it had been introduced from the Low Countries in the late medieval period, brick became one of the most common building materials. Some bricks were imported into England, brought back in ships that exported English wool to the continent. Others were made in brickyards established in East Anglia by Dutch immigrants.

     In several areas of England, notably Cheshire, Lancashire, and Warwickshire, wooden houses, generally in oak, are more numerous than brick. Wood was used to create a skeleton which was filled in with brick or plaster. Bricks were often laid in a herringbone pattern, made possible because they had no structural responsibilities; the wooden posts took the strain and the bricks served as decorative infill. A hybrid form saw the lower story built in stone, with wood used for the upper stories.

     Where bricks were too expensive plaster was the infill of choice, resulting in the typical "black-and-white" small Tudor house, whitewashed plaster set between blackened oak timbers. Often the upper stories of these houses projected above the lower floors, particularly in towns, where ground-floor space was at a premium and the house owner might be taxed according to street frontage.

     Even in wooden houses, though, window and doors are similar to the stone designs, with small arches capped by simple squared-off moldings. Look appendix #17.

     The great houses of the Tudor period featured fanciful gatehouses. The idea was to create an impressive, awe-inspiring entrance. This was accomplished by entry through a broad, low arch flanked by tall octagonal towers decorated with ornate false battlements. Above the entry arch many houses prominently featured a family coat of arms.

     The most obvious feature of interior decoration is the widespread use of oak paneling. This paneling often extends from floor to ceiling. The most common motif used for the paneling was the linen-fold, a raised carving imitating folds of cloth. The term "linen-fold" is a 19th century one; at the time this pattern was termed "lignum undulatum", or "wavy woodwork". Look appendix #18.

Elizabethan Architecture in England 1550-1625

     Towards the end of Henry VIII's reign very little building occurred in England. The debts run up by the spendthrift Henry meant that the country verged on bankruptcy. The wool trade, which had carried the economic life of the country in the late medieval period, was no longer as prosperous as it had been and there was less disposable wealth for architectural projects. But under Elizabeth the county's economy began to revive. The new queen encouraged a return to farming, and the resulting recovery put a reasonable amount of wealth into the hands of a large number of people.

     This new wealth expressed itself in two simultaneous building booms; a great number of small houses were built, and at the same time numerous country mansions were constructed. Many of the earlier medieval or Tudor manors were remodeled and modernized during Elizabeth's reign. Look appendix #19.

     The style adopted by the country house builders was a curious blend of Italian Renaissance tempered with large doses of Dutch influence. Indeed many builders relied heavily on books illustrating Dutch building plans and architectural details. This influence is most readily seen in the curved gables so often used in the Elizabethan period.

     The courtyard designs so prevalent during the medieval and Tudor period gave way to an open plan in the more settled Elizabethan period. The gatehouse, if it was used at all, was purely ornamental. The most common manor plan was an E shape, with the vertical line of the E being the main hall, and the shorter horizontal end lines the kitchens and living rooms. The shorter central line was the entry porch. There is likely little truth in the old maxim that the E-plan was a tribute to Elizabeth; it was a natural evolution of the earlier courtyard designs. Look appendix #20.

     The most important point to note in manor design is that the hall and the living areas had swapped status; the hall was now lesser used, while the long gallery and other living areas were now the centre of family life. The main entries became the most ostentatious and elaborate part of the manor house; it was here that the wealthy man felt most free to lavish his wealth. Entries were often a curious mix of heraldic pretention and classical columns, profuse carvings and ornate decoration. Look appendix #21.

     The smaller Elizabethan houses were less influenced by Renaissance motifs. They continued to evolve slowly from the Tudor style; fireplaces and chimneys were more common, and staircases featured more prominently. Look appendix #22.

Georgian Architecture

     The period of we call Georgian is very roughly equivalent to the 18th century. Although the reign of George III extended into the 19th century, and George IV did not die until 1830, the style(s) of architecture most commonly associated with the Georgian England is at its most strongly identifiable in the period 1730-1800.

     During the 18th century wealth was accumulating in the hands of fewer and fewer people. Basically, the rich were getting richer, and they put money into their homes. Wealthy landowners enclosed vast tracts of land to create huge landscaped parks, and those parks acted as a setting for grand houses we call "country houses".

     These country house estates were dotted with copies of classical temples and other allegorical architectural elements such as grottoes, bridges, and that group of oddments we call "follies". These elements were aligned and joined by sinuous avenues or subtle openings in carefully planted trees and shrubs. The houses which dominated these parks carried on the classical philosophy.

     At the beginning of the century, the Baroque movement produced architecture which employed classical elements in a willy-nilly free-for-all profusion. The opulent cascades of ornamental elements of Baroque gave way in the Georgian period to careful - and in some cases rigid - adherence to a sense of classical proportion. If Baroque is "over-the-top", Georgian classicism is understated elegance.

     The 18th century was a time of great urban growth. At the same time, the density of settlement in towns meant that there was a need to pack a lot of houses into a small space. This need gave birth to the terrace, which allowed a whole street to be given a sense of architectural wholeness, while keeping the size of houses small. Most terraces were made of brick, with sloping slate roofs hidden behind stone parapets. In fashionable Bath, where local stone was plentiful, brick was used less frequently. Look appendix #32.

     Terraces took several forms; often lay out in straight lines, but also in squares around a central garden space, or in crescents or oval "circuses". These last two curvilinear designs were often augmented with vistas and avenues in brick or masonry, punctuated with stands of trees or gardens.

     The widespread use of the terrace plan was made possible by the growth of speculative building. Landowners would build rows of terraced houses with an eye to renting the houses to the upper and newly-wealthy middle class. Although many of these land developers hired architects to carry out their plans, some successful architects were developers themselves, notably the father-son teams of Woods and Dance, and the Adams brothers.

Victorian Art and Architecture

     In reaction to the classical style of the previous century, the Victorian age saw a return to traditional British styles in building, Tudor and mock-Gothic being the most popular. The Gothic Revival, as it was termed, was part spiritual movement, part recoil from the mass produced monotony of the Industrial Revolution. It was a romantic yearning for the traditional, comforting past. The Gothic Revival was led by John Ruskin, who, though not himself an architect had huge influence as a successful writer and philosopher.

     Extravagant and simple. Most popular architectural styles were throwbacks; Tudor, medieval, Italianate. Houses were often large, and terribly inconvenient to live in. The early Victorians had a predilection for overly elaborate details and decoration. Some examples of large Victorian houses are Highclere Castle (Hampshire) and Kelham Hall (Nottinghamshire). In late Victorian times the pendulum, predictably, swung to the other extreme and the style was simpler, using traditional vernacular (folk) models such as the English farmhouse. This period is typified by the work of Norman Shaw at 'Whispers' Midhurst, (Sussex).

     Not just styles changed. The Industrial Revolution made possible the use of new materials such as iron and glass. The best example of the use of these new materials was the Crystal Palace built by Joseph Paxton for the Great Exhibition of 1851.

      Another name that has to be mentioned in the context of Victorian art and architecture is that of William Morris. Neither artist nor architect, he nevertheless had enormous influence in both arenas. Morris and his artist friends Rossetti and Burne-Jones were at the forefront of the movement known as 'Arts and Crafts'. Part political manifesto, part social movement, with a large dollop of nostalgia thrown in, the Arts and Crafters wanted a return to high quality materials and hand-made excellence in all fields of art and decoration.

     The cheap, mass-produced (and artistically inferior) building and decorating materials then available horrified them. Morris himself, through his Morris and Co., designed furniture, textiles, wallpaper, decorative glass, and murals. Many of Morris' designs are still popular today.

Palladian Architecture

     Palladianism is, loosely, a philosophy of design based on the writings and work of Andreas Palladio, an Italian architect of the 16th century who tried to recreate the style and proportions of the buildings of ancient Rome. Look appendix #24.

     The first popularize of Palladian style was Indigo Jones, Surveyor-General under James I. Jones was responsible for several very early classical buildings, notably Queen's House, Greenwich, and the Banqueting House at Whitehall. In many ways Jones was ahead of his time, for it was not until well into the 18th century that adherence to the classical ideals of Palladio became truly widespread in England.

     Unfortunately, this design, and others like it, ignored the fact that Palladio was designing for the sunny climes of his native Italy, and not for the grey skies of England. These Italianate buildings tend to be among the least appealing of the classical movement in England, and physically, as well as artistically, cold.