Appraising the European Central Bank. 2
Сontents:
- Hard talk, soft policy…………………………………………………………
- Caveat creditor…………………………………………………………
…….. - Mobile phones from various years…………………………………………..
- Actual problems
of maintenance of employment in Belorussian and their decigion…………………………………………………………
………………
БЕЛОРУССКИЙ
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ
Кафедра
иностранных языков
Обзорный реферат
Выполнила студентка 4 курса
6 группы
Факультета ИЭ
Специальности БУ
Дубоделова Е.М.
Проверила
Батина Л.Б.
Минск 2011
Appraising the European Central Bank
Hard talk, soft policy
The ECB has run as loose a monetary policy as other central banks have. It is just rather more coy about it
THE global economy has stopped sinking and central bankers are pausing for breath. As The Economist went to press on July 2nd, the European Central Bank (ECB) was expected to keep its main “refi” interest rate unchanged, at 1%. The ECB’s rate-setting council has been chary of cutting rates closer to zero as policymakers elsewhere have done. Its reluctance to do more has attracted criticism, only some of it fair.
The focus on policy rates may put the ECB in a bad light but these are no longer a reliable guide to the overall monetary-policy stance. If you look at market rates the policy stance in the euro area is as loose as anywhere else, because of stimulus decisions taken at the height of the financial crisis. In October the ECB decided it would offer banks as much cash as they wanted, at a fixed interest rate (the refi rate) and against a wider range of security than usual, for up to six months. It also scheduled extra three-month and six-month refinancing operations, so that banks could come more often to the central-bank well.
In May the ECB council agreed to extend the offer of fixed-rate cash to one year. At the first 12-month refinancing operation on June 24th, euro-zone banks borrowed a staggering €442 billion ($620 billion). With so much cash splashing around, the charge that banks make for overnight loans has stayed well below the refi rate, with some occasional spikes (see chart). Since the €442 billion cash injection, overnight interest rates in the euro zone have fallen to a record low of 0.3%, below those in Britain and scarcely higher than in America. Indeed banks can now borrow more cheaply in euros than in pounds for either three, six or 12 months.
Before the crisis, the ECB would aim to keep overnight interest rates close to the refi rate. Since it moved to unlimited fixed-rate funding, the central bank has been content to allow the overnight rate to drift much lower than the policy rate. In effect, the bank now has a target range for short-term rates: the upper bound is the 1% refi rate and the lower bound is the rate the central bank pays on banks’ deposits with it, currently 0.25%. The deposit rate has been a better guide to the policy stance than the refi rate has. ECB-watchers and markets understand this, even though it has not been spelt out in so many words by Jean-Claude Trichet, the ECB’s president.
Why be so coy? One concern is that by playing up the fight against recession, the ECB could appear to have lost sight of inflation. Keeping the totemic refi rate above zero may be seen as necessary to prevent inflation expectations from drifting up. There may also be a reluctance to admit that such a gushing provision of liquidity has altered the policy stance. Since the start of the crisis in August 2007, the ECB has insisted the two are separate. “They are bold on liquidity because they don’t see it as mainstream monetary policy,” says Charles Wyplosz of the Graduate Institute in Geneva. Yet the terms of its refinancing for banks have clearly led to looser monetary conditions.
Another reason for obfuscation is to mask differences among rate-setters. Monetary-policy hawks can reassure themselves that the policy rate is not too low. Doves are happy that effective interest rates are nearer to zero. And Mr Trichet can claim there is a “consensus”. The terms of the truce make it easier to reverse policy when the time comes. By restricting its liquidity support, the ECB will be able to guide overnight interest rates towards 1% without having to alter its policy rate.
Because the ECB has had one eye on the exit since the start of the crisis it has earned plaudits from those who think the Federal Reserve has been incautious. That judgment is too kind to the ECB, which could afford to have scruples about the medium term because other central banks were taking more care of the present. It is also unfair on the Fed, which had to stand in place of America’s collapsed shadow-banking system. When the economy was in most danger, the ECB could have cut rates more quickly. “If the ECB had been more proactive, the recession would have been less bad,” says Marco Annunziata of UniCredit. The striving for consensus militated against bolder action.
Another criticism is that the ECB has not done more to ease credit conditions by buying government and corporate bonds outright, as the Bank of England and the Fed have done. Its scheme to purchase up to €60 billion of the safest bank bonds, launched this month, is modest by comparison. Mr Trichet believes that focus makes sense, as euro-zone businesses and homebuyers rely more on banks than capital markets for credit. In America, capital markets matter more, so the Fed had to get its hands dirtier by buying commercial paper and mortgage-backed securities.
The ECB is also loth to soil its hands with public debt, though banks flush with central-bank cash are keen buyers of such low-risk assets. If this is monetisation at a remove, so be it. The central bank keeps its independence from government and does not have to worry about selling bonds back into the market once the interest-rate cycle turns. “If you want to stay clean, the exit strategy is easier,” says Thomas Mayer of Deutsche Bank.
But
offering ample liquidity support to banks gets you only so far. By buying
assets, the Fed allows American banks to shed them, freeing scarce capital
for fresh lending. As losses mount in the euro zone, capital may trump
liquidity in determining credit growth. Lending to the private sector
slowed to 1.8% in the year to May, an all-time low. Until credit starts
to revive, the ECB cannot think about tightening policy. It may yet
have to be bolder.
Caveat creditor
A new economic era is dawning
SOMETIMES you can have too much news. There was so much financial turmoil in the autumn that it was hard to keep up with events. In retrospect it is clear that a change in the economic backdrop akin to the demise of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s has taken place. Investors will be dealing with the aftermath for decades to come.
From the mid-1980s onwards the answer to big financial setbacks appeared to be simple. Central banks would cut interest rates and, eventually, the stockmarket would recover. It worked after Black Monday (the day in October 1987 when the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell by 23%) and the Asian crisis of 1997-98. It did not rescue shares after the dotcom bust but the easing led to the housing boom and the underpricing of risk in credit markets.
Easing monetary policy was pretty popular. It lowered borrowing costs for companies and homebuyers. To the extent that savers earned lower returns on their deposit accounts, they were usually compensated by a rebound in the value of their equity holdings.
Indeed, monetary easing appeared to be costless. When policymakers cut interest rates in the 1960s and 1970s they often ignited inflationary pressures. Not so in the 1990s. Whether that was down to the brilliance of central banks or the deflationary pressures emanating from China and India is still a matter of debate.
This time around conventional monetary policy has not been enough. The authorities have also had to resort to quantitative easing, using the balance-sheets of central banks to ensure the funding of clearing banks and to keep the lid on bond yields. And there has been a huge dollop of fiscal easing. Some countries’ budget deficits have soared to 10% of GDP.
The fiscal packages have proved rather less popular than monetary easing. Initially they were seen as bail-outs for greedy bankers. But the focus of criticism has shifted to the deterioration of government finances and the potential for higher future taxes, borrowing costs and inflation.
An eerie parallel seems to be at work. There was a time, back in the 1950s and 1960s, when Keynesian stimulus packages were seen as costless. Governments thought they could fine-tune their economies out of recession. Eventually it was realised that the ultimate result of too much stimulus was higher inflation and excessive government involvement in the economy. Keynesian demand management was abandoned in favour of the monetary approach. The past couple of years have demonstrated that the use of monetary policy had its costs too, not in consumer inflation but in rising debt levels and growing asset bubbles.
The authorities never even considered allowing the financial crisis to continue unhindered. The damage to the economy would have been too great. But the costs of this latest round of government action will be big. Investors will have it in mind during the next boom that governments will rescue the largest banks, slash rates, intervene in the markets and run huge deficits. In other words the moral-hazard problem will be even greater.
Before we get there, however, the authorities will have to work out an exit strategy. Past cycles have shown that the tightening phase, after a long period of low rates, can be very dangerous. Bond markets were savaged in 1994 when the Federal Reserve started to raise rates from 3%. What will bond markets do if central banks also unload the holdings acquired during the crisis? And how will stockmarkets perform if interest rates and taxes are being raised at the same time?
Given these risks, the new era will surely be a lot more fragile than the one that prevailed in the 1980s and 1990s. There is simply more scope for policymakers to go wrong.
In addition, the global financial system has lost its anchor. When Bretton Woods broke down and the last link to gold was severed, there was in theory nothing to stop governments from creating money. It took independent central banks, armed with inflation targets, to reassure creditors. But now central banks have shown they have another priority apart from controlling inflation: bailing out the banks.
The
new era is one in which governments are using floating exchange rates,
near-zero interest rates and vast fiscal deficits to protect their economies.
None of this is good news for creditors, who will surely not put up
with the situation for long. The actions they take to protect their
portfolios—demanding higher bond yields, pushing for fixed exchange
rates—will define the next economic system.
Оценивая Европейский Центральный Банк
Жесткий разговор, мягкая политика
Европейский центральный банк управляет кредитно-денежной политикой так же свободно, как и другие центральные банки. Это еще скромно сказано об этом.
Глобальная экономика
Сосредоточение внимания на
В мае совет ЕЦБ принял
Перед кризисом Европейский центральный банк поставил цель держать суточные процентные ставки ближе к курсу рефинансирования. Так как это вылилось в неограниченное финансирование с фиксированной процентной ставкой, центральный банк был согласен позволить однодневной процентной ставке дрейфовать намного ниже чем учетная ставка. В действительности, у банка теперь есть намеченный диапазон для краткосрочных ставок: верхняя граница составляет 1 % курса рефинансирования, и нижняя граница - это ставка центрального банка оплачивающая депозиты банков, в настоящее время 0.25 %. Ставка по депозитам была лучшим в политической позиции, чем по курс рефинансирования. Наблюдатели Европейского центрального банка и рынки понимают это, даже при том, что это не было обстоятельно объяснено в очень многих словах Жана-Клода Тричета, президента Европейского центрального банка.
Почему быть настолько скромным? Одно вызывает беспокойство, что поддерживая борьбу против спада(рецессии), Европейский центральный банк, может показаться, теряет из виду инфляцию. Сохранение главной(тотемной) ставки рефинансирования выше нуля, может рассматриваться в качестве необходимости для предотвращения инфляционных ожиданий дрейфующих вверх. Также может быть нежелание признавать, что такой поток обеспечения ликвидности изменил политическую позицию. С начала кризиса в августе 2007 года, ЕЦБ настаивал на разделение двух понятий. "Они самоуверенны в ликвидности, поскольку они не видят эти действия в качестве основного направления кредитно-денежной политики", говорит Чарльз Виплоц дипломированный специалист из Института в Женеве. Тем не менее условия рефинансирования для банков, очевидно, привели к более свободным кредитно-финансовым условиям.
Еще одна причина путаницы является скрытие различия между сеттерами(лидерами). Кредитно-денежная политика ястребов может успокоить себя тем, что учетный курс не слишком низкий. Голуби рады, что эффективная процентная ставка приближается к нулю. И г-н Трише может утверждать, что есть "консенсус"(согласие). Условия перемирия облегчат изменение политики, когда придет время. Ограничивая свою поддержку ликвидности, Европейский центральный банк будет в состоянии привести ночные(однодневные) процентные ставки к 1 %, без необходимости изменять учетный курс.
Поскольку
у Европейского центрального банка
был один взгляд на выход, с тех
пор как начался кризис, это
заработало одобрение от тех, кто
думает, что Федеральная Резервная
система была неосторожна. Это решение
является слишком добрым для ЕЦБ,
который может позволить
Еще
одно критическое замечание в
том, что ЕЦБ не сделал больше для
облегчения условий кредитования путем
покупки государственных и
ЕЦБ также не склонен пачкать
руки государственным долгом, хотя
поток банков с наличными
центро-банка является
Но предложение достаточной
Предостережение кредитора
Рассвет новой экономической эпохи
Иногда у вас бывает слишком много новостей. Было столько финансовых потрясений осенью, что было трудно идти в ногу с событиями. Оглядываясь назад, становится ясно, что изменения в экономических условиях сродни кончине Бреттон-Вудской системы, имевшей место в начале 1970-х годах. Инвесторы будут иметь дело с последствиями десятилетия вперед.
С середины 1980-х годов ответ на крупные финансовые неудачи казался прост. Центральные банки снижали процентные ставки и, в конечном итоге, фондовая биржа восстановливалась. Это работало после Черного понедельника (день в октябре 1987 года, когда индекс Доу-Джонса для акций промышленных компаний упал на 23 %) и азиатского кризиса 1997-98 гг. Это не спасло акции после банкротства доткомов(интернет-компаний), но привело к ослаблению бума жилищного строительства и недооценке рисков на кредитных рынках.
Ослабление кредитно-денежной
Действительно, денежно-
На этот раз обычной денежно-
Финансовые меры оказались
Жуткая параллель, кажется,
Власти даже не рассматривали
разрешение финансового
Тем не менее, прежде чем попасть туда, властям придется выработать стратегию выхода. Прошлые циклы, показали, что ужесточение этапа, после длительного периода низких ставок, может быть очень опасно. Рынок облигаций взбесился в 1994 году, когда Федеральная резервная система начала повышать ставки до 3%. Что будут делать рынки облигаций, если центральные банки также освободятся от авуаров(вкладов),приобретенных в период кризиса? И как будут работать фондовые биржи, если процентные ставки и налоги, будут подняты в то же время?
Учитывая эти риски, новая эра конечно будет намного более хрупкой чем та, которая преобладала в 1980-ых и 1990-ых. Есть просто больше возможности для власти, чтобы пойти не так, как надо.
Кроме того, глобальная финансовая система потеряла свой якорь. Когда Бреттон-Вуд сломался и последняя связь с золотом прервалась, то теоретически ничто не мешало правительствам создавать деньги. Это стали делать независимые центральные банки, вооруженные инфляционными показателями, чтобы успокоить кредиторов. Но теперь центральные банки показали, что у них есть другой приоритет кроме управления инфляцией: помощь банкам.
Новая
эра - та, в которой правительства
используют плавающие обменные курсы,
почти нулевые процентные ставки
и огромный финансовый дефицит, чтобы
защитить экономические системы.
Совсем не хорошие новости для кредиторов,
которые, безусловно, не будут мириться
с ситуацией долго. Действия, которые они
предпринимают, чтобы защитить свои портфели
- требуют высокие доходы по облигациям,
подталкивают к фиксированным обменным
курсам - определяют следующую экономическую
систему.
Mobile phones from various years
A mobile or cell(ular) (tele)phone is a long-range, portable electronic device for personal telecommunications over long distances.
Most current mobile phones connect to a cellular network of base stations (cell sites), which is in turn interconnected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) (the exception are satellite phones). Cellular networks were first introduced in the early to mid 1980s (the 1G generation). Prior mobile phones operating without a cellular network (the so-called 0G generation), such as Mobile Telephone Service, date back to 1945. Until the mid to late 1980s, most mobile phones were sufficiently large that they were permanently installed in vehicles as car phones. With the advance of miniaturization, currently the vast majority of mobile phones are handheld. In addition to the standard voice function of a telephone, a mobile phone can support many additional services such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to the Internet, and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video.
The world's largest mobile phone manufacturers include Audiovox, BenQ-Siemens, High Tech Computer Corporation, Fujitsu, Kyocera, LG, Motorola, NEC, Nokia, Panasonic (Matsushita Electric), Pantech Curitel, Philips, Sagem, Samsung, Sanyo, Sharp, SK Teletech, Sony Ericsson, T&A Alcatel and Toshiba.
The world's largest mobile phone operators include Orange SA, China Mobile and Vodafone.
There are also specialist communication systems related to, but distinct from mobile phones, such as Professional Mobile Radio. Mobile phones are also distinct from cordless telephones, which generally operate only within a limited range of a specific base station. Technically, the term mobile phone includes such devices as satellite phones and pre-cellular mobile phones such as those operating via MTS which do not have a cellular network, whereas the related term cell(ular) phone does not. In practice, the two terms are used nearly interchangeably, with the preferred term varying by location.
World mobile phone usage
In most of Europe, wealthier parts of Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, Latin America, Australia, Canada, and the United States, mobile phones are now widely used, with the majority of the adult, teenage, and even child population owning one. Taiwan had the highest mobile phone usage in 2005 at 111 subscribers per 100 people. Hong Kong has the highest mobile phone penetration rate in the world, at 127.4% in June 2006. The total number of mobile phone subscribers in the world was estimated at 2.14 billion in 2005.
At present India and China have the largest growth rates of cellular subscribers in the world. The availability of Prepaid or pay as you go services, where the subscriber does not have to commit to a long term contract, has helped fuel this growth on a monumental scale.
The mobile phone has become ubiquitous because of the interoperability of mobile phones across different networks and countries. This is due to the equipment manufacturers working to meet one of a few standards, particularly the GSM standard which was designed for Europe-wide interoperability. All European nations and most Asian and African nations adopted it as their sole standard. In other countries, such as the United States, Australia, Japan, and South Korea, legislation does not require any particular standard, and GSM coexists with other standards, such as CDMA and iDEN.
Mobile phone culture or customs
In fewer than twenty years, mobile phones have gone from being rare and expensive pieces of equipment used by businesses to a pervasive low-cost personal item. In many countries, mobile phones now outnumber land-line telephones, with most adults and many children now owning mobile phones [citation needed]. In the United States, 50% of children own mobile phones. It is not uncommon for young adults to simply own a mobile phone instead of a land-line for their residence [citation needed]. In some developing countries, where there is little existing fixed-line infrastructure, the mobile phone has become widespread. According to the CIA World Factbook the UK now has more mobile phones than people .
With high levels of mobile telephone penetration, a mobile culture has evolved, where the phone becomes a key social tool, and people rely on their mobile phone address book to keep in touch with their friends. Many people keep in touch using SMS, and a whole culture of "texting" has developed from this. The commercial market in SMS's is growing. Many phones even offer Instant Messenger services to increase the simplicity and ease of texting on phones. Cellular phones in Japan, offering Internet capabilities such as NTT DoCoMo's i-mode, offer text messaging via standard e-mail.
The mobile phone itself has also become a totemic and fashion object, with users decorating, customizing, and accessorizing their mobile phones to reflect their personality. This has emerged as its own industry. The sale of commercial ringtones exceeded $2.5 billion in 2004.
The use of a mobile phone is prohibited in some rail carriages
Mobile phone etiquette has become an important issue with mobiles ringing at funerals, weddings, movies, and plays. Users often speak at increased volume which has led to places like bookshops, libraries, movie theatres, doctor's offices, and houses of worship posting signs prohibiting the use of mobile phones, and in some places installing signal jamming equipment to prevent usage (although in many countries, e.g. the United States, such equipment is illegal). Transportation providers, particularly those doing long-distance services, often offer a "quiet car" where phone use is prohibited, much like the designated non-smoking cars in the past. Mobile phone use on aircraft is also prohibited, because of concerns of possible interference with aircraft radio communications. Most schools in the U.S prohibit cell phones due to the high amount of class disruptions due to their use, and due to the possibility of photographing someone (without consent).
In Japan, cellular phone companies provide immediate notification of earthquakes and other natural disasters to their customers free of charge. In the event of an emergency, disaster response crews can locate trapped or injured people using the signals from their mobile phones; an interactive menu accessible through the phone's Internet browser notifies the company if the user is safe or in distress.
Mobile phone features
Main article: Mobile phone features
Invented in 1997, the camera phone is now 85% of the market. Mobile phones also often have features beyond sending text messages and making voice calls—including Internet browsing, music (MP3) playback, personal organizers, e-mail, built-in cameras and camcorders, ringtones, games, radio, Push-to-Talk (PTT), infrared and Bluetooth connectivity, call registers, ability to watch streaming video or download video for later viewing, and serving as a wireless modem for a PC.
In most countries, the person receiving a cellular phone call pays nothing. However, in China (including Hong Kong), Canada, and the United States, one can be charged per minute.
Future prospects
There is a great deal of active research and development into mobile phone technology that is currently underway. Some of the improvements that are being worked on are:
Now that operators are upgrading their networks to advanced wireless and other third-generation (3G) services, many new entertainment and communications services are becoming available, including new broadcast-type operations on spectrum formerly occupied by Television Channels 52-69. With downlink speeds comparable to that of wireline DSL, mobile service can now offer capabilities such as streaming video sharing and music downloads. Services such as MobiTV, Digital Mobile TV or Juice Caster are just some examples of applications that leverage these new networks.
One difficulty in adapting mobile phones to new uses is form factor. For example, ebook readers may well become a distinct device, because of conflicting form-factor requirements — ebook readers require large screens, while phones need to be smaller. However, this may be solved using folding e-paper or built-in projectors.
One function that would be useful in phones is a translation function. Currently it is only available in stand-alone devices, such as Ectaco translators.
An important area of evolution relates to the Man Machine Interface. New solutions are being developed to create new MMI more easily and let manufacturers and operators experiment new concepts. Examples of companies that are currently developing this technology are Digital Airways with the Kaleido product, e-sim, mobile arsenal, and Qualcomm with uiOne for the BREW environment.
Mobile phones will include various speech technologies as they are being developed. Many phones already have rudimentary speech recognition in a form of voice dialing. However, to support more natural speech recognition and translation, a drastic improvement in the state of technology in these devices is required.
New technologies are being explored that will utilize the Extended Internet and enable mobile phones to treat a barcode as a URL tag. Phones equipped with barcode reader-enabled cameras will be able to snap photos of barcodes and direct the user to corresponding sites on the Internet. This technology can be extended to RFID tags, or even snapped pictures of company logos. Searches can also be personalized to local areas using a GPS system built in to cell phones. Examples of companies that are currently developing this technology are Nextcode, OP3, Neomedia Technologies, and Scanbuy, the latter of which is currently being sued by Neomedia for patent infringement. Another approach (used by jumptag.com) is to map URLs to short text tags tailored for easy user entry on phone keypads.

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