History of English
History of English
Five Events that Shaped the History
of EnglishΒ
Philip Durkin, Principal etymologist at the Oxford
English Dictionary, chooses five events that shaped the English Language.
The Anglo-Saxon Settlement
It's never easy to pinpoint exactlyΒ when a specific language began, but in the case of English we can at least say thatΒ there is little sense in speaking of the English language as a separate entityΒ before the Anglo-Saxons came to Britain. Little is known of this period with any certainty, but we do know that Germanic invaders came and settled in Britain from the north-western coastline of continental Europe in the fifth and sixth centuries. The invaders all spoke a language that was Germanic (related to what emerged as Dutch, Frisian, German and the Scandinavian languages, and to Gothic), but we'll probably never know how different their speech was from that of their continental neighbours. HoweverΒ it is fairly certainΒ that many of the settlers would have spoken in exactly the same way as some of their north European neighbours, and that not all of the settlers would have spoken in the same way.
The reason that we know so little about the linguistic situation in this period is becauseΒ we do not have much in the way of written recordsΒ from any of the Germanic languages of north-western Europe until several centuries later. When Old English writings begin to appear in the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries there is a good deal of regional variation, butΒ not substantially more than that found in later periods. This was the language that Alfred the Great referred to as English in the ninth century.
The Celts were already resident in Britain when the Anglo-Saxons arrived, but there are few obvious traces of their language in English today. Some scholars have suggested that the Celtic tongue might have had an underlying influence on the grammatical development of English, particularly in some parts of the country, but this is highly speculative. The number ofΒ loanwordsΒ known for certain to have entered Old English from this source is very small. Those that survive in modern English include brock (badger), and coomb a type of valley, alongside many place names.
ΠΡΡΡ
ΡΠΎΠ±ΡΡΠΈΠΉ, ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΠ΅ ΡΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈ ΠΈΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΡ
Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°.Β Β
Π€ΠΈΠ»ΠΈΠΏ ΠΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠ½, ΡΠΎΠ·Π΄Π°ΡΠ΅Π»Ρ ΠΠΊΡΡΠΎΡΠ΄ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ
ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°, Π²ΡΠ±ΠΈΡΠ°Π΅Ρ ΠΏΡΡΡ
ΡΠΎΠ±ΡΡΠΈΠΉ, ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΠ΅ ΡΡΠΎΡΠΌΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈ Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ
ΡΠ·ΡΠΊ.Β Β
ΠΠ½Π³Π»ΠΎΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠΎΠ½ΡΠΊΠΎΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅.
ΠΡΠ΅Π³Π΄Π°Β ΡΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎ ΡΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΒ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΡ, ΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π°Β Π²ΠΎΠ·Π½ΠΈΠΊ ΡΠΎΡΒ ΠΈΠ»ΠΈΒ ΠΈΠ½ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊ, Π½ΠΎ Π²Β ΡΠ»ΡΡΠ°Π΅ Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎΒ ΠΌΡ, ΠΏΠΎ ΠΊΡΠ°ΠΉΠ½Π΅ΠΉΒ ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠ΅, ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ΅ΠΌΒ ΡΠΊΠ°Π·Π°ΡΡ, ΡΡΠΎΒ Π΅ΡΡΡ ΡΠΌΡΡΠ» Π³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΈΡΡ ΠΎ Π½Π΅ΠΌ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΎΠ± ΠΎΡΠ΄Π΅Π»ΡΠ½ΠΎΠΌ ΡΠ²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠΈ.Β Π‘ΠΊΠ°Π·Π°ΡΡ ΡΡΠΎ-ΡΠΎ Ρ ΡΠ²Π΅ΡΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡΡΡ ΠΎΠ± ΡΡΠΎΠΌ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΎΠ΄Π΅ ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½Ρ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎ, Π½ΠΎ ΠΌΡ ΡΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎ Π·Π½Π°Π΅ΠΌ, ΡΡΠΎ Π³Π΅ΡΠΌΠ°Π½ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Π·Π°Ρ Π²Π°ΡΡΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ΅Ρ Π°Π»ΠΈ ΠΈ ΠΎΠ±ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈΡΡ Π² ΠΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ±ΡΠΈΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΠΈ Π½Π° ΡΠ΅Π²Π΅ΡΠΎ-Π·Π°ΠΏΠ°Π΄Π½ΠΎΠΌ ΠΏΠΎΠ±Π΅ΡΠ΅ΠΆΡΠ΅ ΠΠ²ΡΠΎΠΏΡ Π² ΠΏΡΡΠΎΠΌ ΠΈ ΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΎΠΌ Π²Π΅ΠΊΠ°Ρ . ΠΠ½ΠΈ Π³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΈΠ»ΠΈ Π½Π° Π³Π΅ΡΠΌΠ°Π½ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ ΠΏΡΠ°ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ΅ (ΡΠΎΠ΄ΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΌ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ²ΠΈΠ²ΡΠΈΠΌΡΡ ΠΏΠΎΠ·ΠΆΠ΅ Π½ΠΈΠ΄Π΅ΡΠ»Π°Π½Π΄ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌΡ, Π€ΡΠΈΠ·, Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌΡ ΠΈ ΡΠΊΠ°Π½Π΄ΠΈΠ½Π°Π²ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°ΠΌ), Π½ΠΎ, Π²Π΅ΡΠΎΡΡΠ½ΠΎ, ΠΌΡ Π½ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° Π½Π΅ ΡΠ·Π½Π°Π΅ΠΌ, Π½Π°ΡΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΎ ΠΎΡΠ»ΠΈΡΠ°Π»Π°ΡΡ ΠΈΡ ΡΠ΅ΡΡ ΠΎΡ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΈ ΠΈΡ ΡΠΎΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅ΠΉ. Π‘ΡΠΎΠΈΡ Π·Π°ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΈΡΡ, ΡΡΠΎ,Β Π²ΠΎΠ·ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎ, ΠΏΠΎΡΠ΅Π»Π΅Π½ΡΡ ΠΌΠΎΠ³Π»ΠΈ Π³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΈΡΡ Π½Π° ΠΎΠ΄Π½ΠΎΠΌ ΠΈ ΡΠΎΠΌ ΠΆΠ΅ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ΅.
ΠΡΠΈΡΠΈΠ½Π° ΡΡΠΎΠ»ΡΒ ΠΌΠ°Π»ΡΡ Β Π·Π½Π°Π½ΠΈΠΉ ΠΎΒ Π»ΠΈΠ½Π³Π²ΠΈΡΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠΉΒ ΡΠΈΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈΠΈ ΡΡΠΎΠ³ΠΎΒ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΎΠ΄Π°, Π·Π°ΠΊΠ»ΡΡΠ°Π΅ΡΡΡΒ Π²Β ΡΠΎΠΌ, ΡΡΠΎΒ Ρ Π½Π°Ρ Π½Π΅Ρ ΠΏΠΈΡΡΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΡΡ Π°ΡΡ ΠΈΠ²ΠΎΠ², Π»ΠΈΠ±ΠΎ Π΄ΠΎΠΊΡΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΠΎΠ², ΠΏΠΎΡΠ²ΡΡΠ΅Π½Π½ΡΡ Π³Π΅ΡΠΌΠ°Π½ΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°ΠΌ Π±ΠΎΠ»Π΅Π΅ ΡΠ°Π½Π½ΠΈΡ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ². ΠΠΎΡΠ²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ°Π·Π½ΡΡ Π΄ΠΈΠ°Π»Π΅ΠΊΡΠΎΠ², Ρ ΠΎΡΡ ΠΎΠ½ΠΈ Π±ΡΠ»ΠΈΒ Π½Π΅ ΡΡΠΎΠ»Ρ ΡΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½Ρ, ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎ Π±ΡΠ»ΠΎ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΠΈΡΡ ΠΏΠΎ Π΄ΠΎΠΊΡΠΌΠ΅Π½ΡΠ°ΠΌ, Π΄Π°ΡΠΈΡΡΡΡΠΈΠΌΠΈΡΡ 7-9 Π²Π΅ΠΊΠ°ΠΌΠΈ. ΠΡΠ΅ ΠΎΠ½ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΠ½Π°Π΄Π»Π΅ΠΆΠ°Π»ΠΈ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΡ, ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΠΉ ΠΠ»ΡΡΡΠ΅Π΄ ΠΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΈΠΉ Π² Π΄Π΅Π²ΡΡΠΎΠΌ Π²Π΅ΠΊΠ΅ Π½Π°Π·ΡΠ²Π°Π» ΠΠ½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ.
ΠΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΒ ΡΠΆΠ΅Β ΠΎΡΠ΅Π»ΠΈ Π² ΠΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ±ΡΠΈΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΠΈ, ΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° ΠΏΠΎΡΠ²ΠΈΠ»ΠΈΡΡ Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΎΡΠ°ΠΊΡΡ. ΠΡ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊ ΠΎΡΡΠ°Π²ΠΈΠ» Π±ΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΎΠΉ ΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ Π² Π»Π΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠΊΠ΅ ΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΠ½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°. ΠΠ΅ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΠ΅ ΡΡΠ΅Π½ΡΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΏΠΎΠ»Π°Π³Π°Π»ΠΈ, ΡΡΠΎ Π½Π° Π΅Π³ΠΎ Π³ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠ°Π·Π²ΠΈΡΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΠ²Π»ΠΈΡΠ» ΠΊΠ΅Π»ΡΡΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ, ΠΎΡΠΎΠ±Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ ΡΡΠΎ Π·Π°ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠ½ΠΎ Π² Π½Π΅ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΡ ΡΠ°ΡΡΡΡ ΡΡΡΠ°Π½Ρ. ΠΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΠΎΒ Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½Π½ΡΡ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ², ΠΏΡΠΈΡΠ΅Π΄ΡΠΈΡ ΠΈΠ· Π΄ΡΠ΅Π²Π½Π΅Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°, ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½Ρ ΠΌΠ°Π»ΠΎ. ΠΠ°ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ, brock (badger) β Π±Π°ΡΡΡΠΊ.
The Scandinavian Settlements
The next invaders were the Norsemen. From the middle of the ninth century large numbers of Norse invaders settled in Britain, particularly in northern and eastern areas, and in the eleventh century the whole of England had a Danish king, Canute. The distinct North Germanic speech of the Norsemen had great influence on English, most obviously seen in the words that English has borrowed from this source. These include some very basic words such as take and even grammatical words such as they. The common Germanic base of the two languages meant that there were still many similarities between Old English and the language of the invaders. Some words, for example give perhaps show a kind of hybridization with some spellings going back to Old English and others being Norse in origin. However, the resemblances between the two languages are so great that in many casesΒ it is impossible to be sure of the exact ancestry of a particular word or spelling. However, much of the influence of Norse, including the vast majority of the loanwords, does not appear in written English until after the next great historical and cultural upheaval, the Norman Conquest.
Π‘ΠΊΠ°Π½Π΄ΠΈΠ½Π°Π²ΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ΅Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ.
Π‘Π»Π΅Π΄ΡΡΡΠΈΠΌΠΈΒ Π·Π°Ρ Π²Π°ΡΡΠΈΠΊΠ°ΠΌΠΈ Π±ΡΠ»ΠΈ ΡΠΊΠ°Π½Π΄ΠΈΠ½Π°Π²Ρ. Π‘Β ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΈΠ½Ρ Π΄Π΅Π²ΡΡΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π²Π΅ΠΊΠ° Π½ΠΎΡΠ²Π΅ΠΆΡΠΊΠΈΠ΅ Π·Π°Ρ Π²Π°ΡΡΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΠΎΡΠ΅Π»ΠΈ Π² ΠΠ΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ±ΡΠΈΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΠΈ, ΠΏΡΠ΅ΠΈΠΌΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π΅Π½Π½ΠΎ Π² ΡΠ΅Π²Π΅ΡΠ½ΡΡ ΠΈ Π²ΠΎΡΡΠΎΡΠ½ΡΡ ΠΎΠ±Π»Π°ΡΡΡΡ , ΠΈ Π² ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ½Π½Π°Π΄ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΠΌ Π²Π΅ΠΊΠ΅ Π½Π° ΠΠ½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΠΏΡΠ΅ΡΡΠΎΠ» Π²Π·ΠΎΡΠ΅Π» Π΄Π°ΡΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΠ»Ρ ΠΠ°Π½ΡΡΡ. Π Π΅ΡΡ Π‘ΠΊΠ°Π½Π΄ΠΈΠ½Π°Π²ΠΎΠ² ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½Ρ ΡΠΈΠ»ΡΠ½ΠΎ ΠΏΠΎΠ²Π»ΠΈΡΠ»Π° Π½Π° Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊ, ΡΡΠΎ Π²ΠΈΠ΄Π½ΠΎ ΠΈΠ· Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½Π½ΡΡ ΠΈΠ· ΠΈΡ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ° ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ². ΠΠ½ΠΈ Π²ΠΊΠ»ΡΡΠ°ΡΡ Π² ΡΠ΅Π±Ρ ΡΠ°ΠΌΡΠ΅ ΠΏΡΠΎΡΡΡΠ΅ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π°, ΡΠ°ΠΊΠΈΠ΅ ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ, Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ, to take β Π±ΡΠ°ΡΡ. Π’Π°ΠΊΠΎΠ΅ ΡΡ ΠΎΠ΄ΡΡΠ²ΠΎ ΠΌΠ΅ΠΆΠ΄Ρ Π½ΠΈΠΌΠΈ ΠΎΠ·Π½Π°ΡΠ°Π»ΠΎ, ΡΡΠΎ ΠΡΠ΅Π²Π½Π΅Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΠΈ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊ Π·Π°Ρ Π²Π°ΡΡΠΈΠΊΠΎΠ² ΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π»ΠΈ ΡΡΠΎ-ΡΠΎ ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ΅Π΅. ΠΠ΅ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΠ΅ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π°, Π½Π°ΠΏΡΠΈΠΌΠ΅Ρ, to give ΠΏΠΎΠΊΠ°Π·ΡΠ²Π°ΡΡ, ΡΠ²ΠΎΠ΅Π³ΠΎ ΡΠΎΠ΄Π°, Β«ΡΠΊΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅Β» Π³ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΡ ΡΡΡΡΠΊΡΡΡ Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΈ ΡΠΊΠ°Π½Π΄ΠΈΠ½Π°Π²ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠ². Π, Ρ ΠΎΡΡ, ΡΡ ΠΎΠ΄ΡΡΠ²Π° ΠΌΠ΅ΠΆΠ΄Ρ Π½ΠΈΠΌΠΈ Π½Π°ΡΡΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΎ Π²Π΅Π»ΠΈΠΊΠΈ, Π² Π±ΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΈΠ½ΡΡΠ²Π΅ ΡΠ»ΡΡΠ°Π΅Π²Β Π½Π΅Π²ΠΎΠ·ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎ ΡΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎ ΠΎΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄Π΅Π»ΠΈΡΡ ΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΡΡ ΠΎΠΆΠ΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π°. ΠΠ΄Π½Π°ΠΊΠΎ ΡΡΠΎ Π²Π»ΠΈΡΠ½ΠΈΠ΅ Π½Π΅ ΠΎΡΡΠ°ΠΆΠ°Π΅ΡΡΡ Π½Π° ΠΏΠΈΡΡΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ΅ Π΄ΠΎ ΠΎΠΊΠΎΠ½ΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΡ ΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΡΡΡΠ΅Π³ΠΎ Π±ΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΈΡΡΠΎΡΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΈ ΠΊΡΠ»ΡΡΡΡΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π²ΠΎΡΠΎΡΠ° β ΠΠΎΡΠΌΠ°Π½Π½ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΠ°Π²ΠΎΠ΅Π²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ.
1066 and after 1066 and all that
The centuries after the Norman Conquest witnessed
enormous changes in the English language. In the course of what is called
the Middle English period, the fairly rich inflectional system of Old
English broke down. It was replaced by what is broadly speaking, the
same system English has today, which unlike Old English makes very little
use of distinctive word endings in the grammar of the language. The
vocabulary of English also changed enormously, with tremendous numbers
of borrowings from French and Latin, in addition to the Scandinavian
loanwords already mentioned, which were slowly starting to appear in
the written language. Old English, like German today, showed a tendency
to find native equivalents for foreign words and phrases (although both
Old English and modern German show plenty of loanwords), whereas Middle
English acquired the habit that modern English retains today of readily
accommodating foreign words. Trilingualism in English, French, and Latin
was common in the worlds of business and the professions, with words
crossing over from one language to another with ease. One only has to
flick through the etymologies of any English dictionary to get an impression
of the huge number of words entering English from French and Latin during
the later medieval period.Β This trend was set to continue intoΒ the early
modern period with the explosion of interest in the writings of the
ancient world.Β Β
ΠΠΎ
ΠΈ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ»Π΅ 1066 Π³ΠΎΠ΄Π°.
Π ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅Β Π½Π΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΈΡ Π²Π΅ΠΊΠΎΠ²Β ΠΏΠΎΡΠ»Π΅Β ΠΠΎΡΠΌΠ°Π½Π½ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΠ°Π²ΠΎΠ΅Π²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ, Π²Β ΠΠ½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ΅Β ΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΡΡ ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ»ΠΈΒ ΠΎΠ³ΡΠΎΠΌΠ½ΡΠ΅ ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ. ΠΒ Ρ ΠΎΠ΄Π΅ ΡΠΎΠ³ΠΎ, ΡΡΠΎΒ Π½Π°Π·ΡΠ²Π°ΡΡ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠΌ Β«Π‘ΡΠ΅Π΄Π½Π΅Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°Β», Π΄ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ»ΡΠ½ΠΎ Π±ΠΎΠ³Π°ΡΠ°Ρ ΡΠ»Π΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠ²Π½Π°Ρ ΡΠΈΡΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ° ΡΠ»ΠΎΠΌΠ°Π»Π°ΡΡ. Π ΠΎΠ±ΡΠ΅ΠΌ - ΡΠΎ, ΠΎΠ½Π° Π±ΡΠ»Π° Π·Π°ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½Π° ΡΠΎΠΉ ΠΌΠΎΠ΄Π΅Π»ΡΡ, ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΠ°Ρ ΠΈ ΡΠ΅Π³ΠΎΠ΄Π½Ρ ΡΡΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²ΡΠ΅Ρ Π² Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ΅, ΠΈ Π² Π½Π΅ΠΉ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠΈ Π½Π΅ ΠΈΡΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡΠ·ΡΡΡΡΡ Ρ Π°ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠ΅ΡΠ½ΡΠ΅ Π΄Π»Ρ Π³ΡΠ°ΠΌΠΌΠ°ΡΠΈΠΊΠΈ ΡΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ ΠΎΠΊΠΎΠ½ΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΡ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ². Π’Π°ΠΊ ΠΆΠ΅ ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½Ρ ΡΠΈΠ»ΡΠ½ΠΎ ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ»Π°ΡΡ ΠΈ Π»Π΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠΊΠ° Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°: ΠΏΠΎΠΌΠΈΠΌΠΎ ΡΠΊΠ°Π½Π΄ΠΈΠ½Π°Π²ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°, ΠΎ ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΠΎΠΌ ΡΠΆΠ΅ Π³ΠΎΠ²ΠΎΡΠΈΠ»ΠΎΡΡ, Π±ΡΠ»ΠΈ Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½Ρ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π° ΠΈΠ· ΡΡΠ°Π½ΡΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΈ Π»Π°ΡΠΈΠ½ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ. Π‘ΠΎ Π²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅ΠΌ, ΠΎΠ½ΠΈ Π½Π°ΡΠ°Π»ΠΈ ΠΏΠΎΡΠ²Π»ΡΡΡΡΡ ΠΈ Π² ΠΏΠΈΡΡΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΉ ΡΠ΅ΡΠΈ. ΠΡΠΈΠ½ΠΈΠΌΠ°Ρ Π²ΠΎ Π²Π½ΠΈΠΌΠ°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠΎ, ΡΡΠΎ Π² Π‘ΡΠ΅Π΄Π½Π΅Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ΅ ΠΈΠΌΠ΅Π»ΠΎ ΠΌΠ΅ΡΡΠΎ Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠ΅ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ², ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΠΎΠ΅, ΠΊΡΡΠ°ΡΠΈ, ΡΠΎΡ ΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΠ»ΠΎΡΡ ΠΈ Π² ΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΌ ΠΠ½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ, Π² Π΄ΡΠ΅Π²Π½Π΅Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ, ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΠΈ Π² Π½Π΅ΠΌΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ, Π±ΡΠ»Π° ΡΠ΅Π½Π΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡ ΠΊ Π½Π°Ρ ΠΎΠΆΠ΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΡ ΡΠΊΠ²ΠΈΠ²Π°Π»Π΅Π½ΡΠΎΠ² Π΄Π»Ρ ΠΈΠ½ΠΎΡΡΡΠ°Π½Π½ΡΡ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ² ΠΈ ΡΡΠ°Π·. Π’ΡΠ΅Ρ ΡΡΠ·ΡΡΠΈΠ΅ Π΄Π»Ρ Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ, ΡΡΠ°Π½ΡΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΈ Π»Π°ΡΠΈΠ½ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠ² Π±ΡΠ»ΠΎ ΠΎΠ±ΡΡΠ½ΡΠΌ ΡΠ²Π»Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ΠΌ. Π§Π°ΡΠ΅ Π²ΡΠ΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΈΠ½ΠΎΡΡΡΠ°Π½Π½ΡΠ΅ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π° Π²ΡΡΡΠ΅ΡΠ°Π»ΠΈΡΡ Π² Π±ΠΈΠ·Π½Π΅Ρ-Π»Π΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠΊΠ΅. Π§ΡΠΎΠ±Ρ ΡΠ±Π΅Π΄ΠΈΡΡΡΡ Π² ΡΠΎΠΌ, ΡΡΠΎ Π»Π΅ΠΊΡΠΈΠΊΠ° Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ° ΡΠΎΡΡΠΎΠΈΡ ΠΈΠ· ΠΎΠ³ΡΠΎΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΊΠΎΠ»ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΡΠ²Π° Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½Π½ΡΡ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ², ΠΎΡΠΊΡΠΎΠΉΡΠ΅ ΡΡΠΈΠΌΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΡΠ΅ΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ²Π°ΡΡ ΠΈ ΠΏΠΎΡΠΌΠΎΡΡΠΈΡΠ΅ ΠΈΡ ΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΡΡ ΠΎΠΆΠ΄Π΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅ β Π±ΠΎΠ»ΡΡΠ°Ρ ΡΠ°ΡΡΡ ΠΏΡΠΈΡΠ»Π° ΠΈΠ· ΡΡΠ°Π½ΡΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΈ Π»Π°ΡΠΈΠ½ΡΠΊΠΎΠ³ΠΎ.Β ΠΡΠ° ΡΠ΅Π½Π΄Π΅Π½ΡΠΈΡ ΠΏΡΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ»ΠΆΠΈΠ»Π°ΡΡ ΠΈ Π²Β ΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠΌ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΎΠ΄Π΅, ΠΊΠΎΠ³Π΄Π° ΠΏΠΎΡΠ²ΠΈΠ»ΡΡ Π½Π΅ΠΎΠ±ΡΡΠ°ΠΉΠ½ΡΠΉ ΠΈΠ½ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Ρ ΠΊ ΠΏΠΈΡΡΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΡΡΠΈ ΠΡΠ΅Π²Π½Π΅Π³ΠΎ ΠΌΠΈΡΠ°.
Standardization
The late medieval and early modern periods saw a fairly steady process of standardization in English south of the Scottish border. The written and spoken language of London continued to evolve and gradually began to have a greater influence in the country at large. For most of the Middle English period a dialect was simply what was spoken in a particular area, which would normally be more or less represented in writing - although where and from whom the writer had learnt how to write were also important. It was only when the broadly London standard began to dominate, especially through the new technology of printing, that the other regional varieties of the language began to be seen as different in kind. As the London standard became used more widely, especially in more formal contexts and particularly amongst the more elevated members of society,Β the other regional varieties came to be stigmatized, as lacking social prestige and indicating a lack of education. In the same period a series of changes also occurred in English pronunciation (though not uniformly in all dialects), which go under the collective name of theΒ Great Vowel Shift. These were purely linguistic sound changes which occur in every language in every period of history. The changes in pronunciation werenβt the result of specific social or historical factors, but social and historical factors would have helped to spread the results of the changes. As a result the so-called pure vowel sounds which still characterize many continental languages were lost to English. The phonetic pairings of most long and short vowel sounds were also lost, which gave rise to many of the oddities of English pronunciation, and which now obscure the relationships between many English words and their foreign counterparts.
Π‘ΡΠ°Π½Π΄Π°ΡΡΠΈΠ·Π°ΡΠΈΡ.
ΠΠΎΠ·Π΄Π½Π΅ΡΡΠ΅Π΄Π½Π΅Π²Π΅ΠΊΠΎΠ²ΡΠΉ ΠΈΒ ΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΡΠΉΒ
ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΎΠ΄ΡΒ Ρ
Π°ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ²Π°Π»ΠΈΡΡΒ
Colonization and Globalization
During the medieval and early modern periods the influence of English spread throughout the British Isles, and from the early seventeenth century onwards its influence began to be felt throughout the world. The complex processes of exploration, colonization and overseas trade that characterized Britain s external relations for several centuries became agents for change in the English language. This wasn t simply through the acquisition of loanwords deriving from languages from every corner of the world, which in many cases only entered English via the languages of other trading and imperial nations such as Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands, but through the gradual development of new varieties of English, each with their own nuances of vocabulary and grammar and their own distinct pronunciations. More recently still, English has become a lingua franca, a global language, regularly used and understood by many nations for whom English is not their first language. The eventual effects on the English language of both of these developments can only be guessed at today, butΒ there can be little doubtΒ that they will be as important as anything that has happened to English in the past sixteen hundred years.
ΠΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ½ΠΈΠ·Π°ΡΠΈΡ ΠΈΒ Π³Π»ΠΎΠ±Π°Π»ΠΈΠ·Π°ΡΠΈΡ.
Π ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅Β ΡΡΠ΅Π΄Π½Π΅Π²Π΅ΠΊΠΎΠ²ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ
ΠΈΒ ΡΠΎΠ²ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ³ΠΎ ΠΏΠ΅ΡΠΈΠΎΠ΄ΠΎΠ², Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ
Π΄ΠΎΠΌΠΈΠ½ΠΈΡΠΎΠ²Π°Π»Β Π½Π° ΠΡΠΈΡΠ°Π½ΡΠΊΠΈΡ
ΠΎΡΡΡΠΎΠ²Π°Ρ
,
Π°Β ΡΒ Π½Π°ΡΠ°Π»Π° ΡΠ΅ΠΌΠ½Π°Π΄ΡΠ°ΡΠΎΠ³ΠΎ Π²Π΅ΠΊΠ° ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ²ΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ²Π°Π»ΠΎΡΡΒ
Π΅Π³ΠΎΒ Π²Π»ΠΈΡΠ½ΠΈΠ΅Β ΠΈΒ Π²ΠΎ Π²ΡΠ΅ΠΌ ΠΌΠΈΡΠ΅. Π‘Π»ΠΎΠΆΠ½ΡΠ΅Β
ΠΏΡΠΎΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΠΈΡΡΠ»Π΅Π΄ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΠΉ, ΠΊΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠ½ΠΈΠ·Π°ΡΠΈΡ, Π²Π½Π΅ΡΠ½ΡΡΒ
ΡΠΎΡΠ³ΠΎΠ²Π»Ρ, ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΠ°ΡΒ Ρ
Π°ΡΠ°ΠΊΡΠ΅ΡΠΈΠ·ΠΎΠ²Π°Π»Π°Β
Π²Π½Π΅ΡΠ½ΠΈΠ΅Β ΠΎΡΠ½ΠΎΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΡΒ ΠΡΠΈΡΠ°Π½ΠΈΠΈ Π²ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π½ΠΈΠ΅
Π½Π΅ΡΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΈΡ
ΡΡΠΎΠ»Π΅ΡΠΈΠΉ, ΡΡΠ°Π»ΠΈ ΠΏΡΠΈΡΠΈΠ½Π°ΠΌΠΈ
ΠΈΠ·ΠΌΠ΅Π½Π΅Π½ΠΈΠΉ Π² Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ΅. ΠΡΠΎ ΠΏΡΠΎΠΈΡΡ
ΠΎΠ΄ΠΈΠ»ΠΎ
Π½Π΅ ΡΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΎ ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΅Π΄ΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠΌ Π·Π°ΠΈΠΌΡΡΠ²ΠΎΠ²Π°Π½ΠΈΡ
ΡΠ»ΠΎΠ², Π½ΠΎ ΠΈ ΡΠ΅ΡΠ΅Π· ΠΏΠΎΡΡΠ΅ΠΏΠ΅Π½Π½ΠΎΠ΅ ΡΠ°Π·Π²ΠΈΡΠΈΠ΅
ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠ°. ΠΠΎΠ·ΠΆΠ΅, Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΡΡΠ°Π» Π»ΠΈΠ½Π³Π²ΠΎΠΉ
ΡΡΠ°Π½ΠΊΠΎΠΉ (ΡΠΎ Π΅ΡΡΡ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ, ΠΈΡΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡΠ·ΡΠ΅ΠΌΡΠΌ
Π»ΡΠ΄ΡΠΌΠΈ ΠΈΠ· ΡΠ°Π·Π½ΡΡ
ΡΡΠ°Π½), Π³Π»ΠΎΠ±Π°Π»ΡΠ½ΡΠΌ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ,
ΡΠ΅Π³ΡΠ»ΡΡΠ½ΠΎ ΠΈΡΠΏΠΎΠ»ΡΠ·ΡΠ΅ΠΌΡΠΌ ΠΌΠ½ΠΎΠ³ΠΈΠΌΠΈ Π½Π°ΡΠΈΡΠΌΠΈ,
Π΄Π»Ρ ΠΊΠΎΡΠΎΡΡΡ
Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ Π½Π΅ ΡΠ²Π»ΡΠ΅ΡΡΡ ΠΈΡ
ΡΠΎΠ΄Π½ΡΠΌ. ΠΠΎΠΆΠ½ΠΎ ΡΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΠΎ ΠΏΡΠ΅Π΄ΠΏΠΎΠ»ΠΎΠΆΠΈΡΡ Π²ΠΎΠ·ΠΌΠΎΠΆΠ½ΡΠΉ
ΡΡΡΠ΅ΠΊΡ ΡΡΠΈΡ
ΡΠΎΠ±ΡΡΠΈΠΉ Π½Π° Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΉ ΡΠ·ΡΠΊ,
ΠΏΠΎΡΠΊΠΎΠ»ΡΠΊΡ ΠΎΠ½ΠΈΒ Π½Π°Π²ΡΡΠ΄ Π»ΠΈΒ Π±ΡΠ΄ΡΡ ΡΠ°ΠΊ ΠΆΠ΅ Π²Π°ΠΆΠ½Ρ,
ΠΊΠ°ΠΊ ΡΡΠΎ-Π»ΠΈΠ±ΠΎ ΡΠ»ΡΡΠΈΠ²ΡΠ΅Π΅ΡΡ Ρ Π°Π½Π³Π»ΠΈΠΉΡΠΊΠΈΠΌ
ΡΠ·ΡΠΊΠΎΠΌ Π·Π° ΠΏΠΎΡΠ»Π΅Π΄Π½ΠΈΠ΅ 1600 Π»Π΅Ρ.Β

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