Lexical problems of translation
In the process of translation grammatical and lexical phenomena are taken in as inseparably connected. A word keeps its semantic identity standing in different contexts. The context determines a proper meaning of a used word in an every concrete case but all possible meanings of words are present constantly in a translator’s mind.
In order to confront correctly English and Armenian lexical units in translation of a concrete text a translator must know basic types of similar comparisons and which factors should be considered to choose a final variant of translation.
Most of words both in the Armenian and English languages are polysemantic. Different meanings of a word are connected between each other and as a rule combined around common basic datum value. Semantics of a word reveals itself in the context, depends on lexical surroundings of the word. Therefore, for discovering exact meaning a word should be considered not isolated but in connection with other words and sometimes more large context is needed.
The aim of the term-paper
The aim of the term-paper is to analyze the importance of the adequate translation and define lexical difficulties that are faced in translation.
The objectives of the term-paper are:
1. to show in what way translation of the words that have (don’t have) lexical correspondences in the Russian language is realized,
2. to analyze characteristics and methods of translation of English figurative phraseology,
3. to give a notion of lexical transformation and its kinds,
4. to compare
The practical value of the term-paper
To show differences between English Armenian and Russian languages. To use different methods for the same sentence.
The paper consists of
Chapter1 (1.1 Lexical Problems and Methods of Translation, 1.2Translation of the Word that don’t have Direct Lexical Correspondences, 1.3 Translation of Phraseological Units, 1.3.2Methods of Figurative Phraseology Translation).
Chapter2 (2.1 Additions, 2.2 Omissions, 2.3 Substitutes, 2.3.1 Methods of Creating of Contextual Substitutes, 2.3.2 Method of Generalization, 2.3.3 Method of Antonymic Translation, 2.3.4 Method of Compensation, 2.3.5 Method Semantic Development, 2.3.6 Method of Complete Interpretation).
The term-paper is carried out on the basis of S. Maugham’s “The Theatre”
1.1 Lexical Problems & Methods of Translation
Due to the semantic features of language the meanings of words, their usage, ability to combine with other words, associations awakened by them, the place they hold in the lexical system of a language do not concur for the most part. All the same «ideas» expressed by words coincide in most cases, though the means of expression differ.
As it is impossible to embrace all the cases of semantic differences between two languages, we shall restrict this course to the most typical features.
The principal types of lexical correspondences between two languages are as follows:
I. Complete correspondences.
II. Partial correspondences.
III. The absence of correspondences.
First of all a translation of a word starts from
an attempt to discover in the Armenian language the word that is coincident
in the meaning with the given one. There is a good deal of the Armenian
words which have a close meaning to English words. In the theory of
translation that sort of words is named lexical or lexicographic correspondence.
Two basic types of semantic relations between words of the English and Russian languages are discovered:
A meaning of an English word corresponds completely to a meaning of a Russian one. That kind of correspondence implies that in all (or almost all) cases of using of an English word it will be conveyed in translation with this Russian word. Such permanent equivalent correspondences we will name equivalents.
For examples, English words London, cypress, twenty, Monday, March have equivalent correspondences in the Armenian language: Լոնդոն, կիպարիս, տասներկու, երկուշաբթի մարտ .
Terms (not all), proper names, place-names, numerals, names of days of the week and months, etc. are also represented by equivalents in another language. There is not a lot of equivalent correspondences in languages as most of words are polysemantic. As a rule, polysemantic words don’t have one equivalent; an equivalent can have just single meaning of these words. For
example, figure-կազմվածք, թիվ
. Meanings of several Armenian words correspond partially to the meaning of an English word, i.e. this word has several lexical correspondences, similar by meaning. This type of correspondences is named variant correspondence.
A skill of a translator to a great extent consists in the ability to find a number of correspondences to the English word and choose the variant that is more appropriate by the terms of the context. Let’s take, for example, the following sentence from the novel:
He said they could not afford to let sentiment stand in the way of business. (Ch 7: 63).
Նա ասաց, չպետք է թւոյլ տալ , որ զգացմունքը խանգարի գործին (Գլ 7:53):
A dictionary gives 4 meanings of the word sentiment:
- Զգացմունք,հարաբերություն, տրամադրություն, տեսարան
- Գերզգայունություն
- Միտք
- Տոստ
The first meaning of the four suits most of all. There are variant correspondences in the first meaning among that a translator has to choose most closely apt one. The translator of the novel chose the word զգացմունք.
Very often a sequence of lexical variant correspondences given in a dictionary doesn’t satisfy a translator. He/she can’t make use of them, for instance, for stylistic reasons. In that case a translator prolongs a sequence of lexical correspondences. A word in particular context can take on special significance that is not constant but arises only in the given context.
However, contextual meanings of words, though they are not constant, are not casual. They are not in dictionaries but there is always bond between a contextual meaning and a basic object-logical one. So a translator can “throw a bridge” from the meaning given in a dictionary to the originated contextual one. For example:
We’ve had a couple of duds. The next play’s bound to be all right and then we shall get back all we’ve lost and a packet into the bargain. (Ch.9:77).
Երկու անգամ ձախողվեցինք հաջորդ պիեսն անպայման հաջողություն կունենա և այն ժամանակ կորցրածը ետ կբերենք ու դեռ մի կլորիկ դրամ էլ մեզ կմնա:
A dictionary gives the following meanings of the word dud:
- Ցնցոտիներ, պատռված հագուստ
- անպիտան անձը կամ իր
- կեղծ, շինծու բան.
- ձախողակ.
No one of the indicated in the dictionary meanings of this word suits for given context but it can be guessed by the next sentence. It means failure as between dud and failure the associative consecution can be built. So the word dud has the contextual meaning, the translator gives it with a mark “here”.
1.2 Translation of the Words that don’t have Direct Lexical Correspondences
Many English words don’t have any direct correspondences among Armenian lexical units. They are neologisms, the words which express specific notions and realities, little known names. Practice of translation has some ways of conveying of these words:
1) transliteration;
2) descriptive translation;
3) replication.
When a translator has to convey an English word which doesn’t have any correspondence in the Armenian language he can try to recreate a form of the English word in translation in order to bring a lexical unit into Armenian the language that corresponds to the translated English word.
A foreign form in translation can be conveyed by two ways: transliteration and transcription. Transliteration is based on conveying of graphical image of an English word, i.e. English letters. Transcription is based on phonetic principle, i.e. on conveying of the sounds of an English word by Armenian letters. The last way conveys sounding of an English word more exactly as it proceeds from not English spelling but from its real sounding.
Mrs. De Vries had seen Julia act in Middlepool. She gave parties so that the young actors might get to know managers, and asked them to stay at her grand house near Guildford, where they enjoyed a luxury they had never dreamed of. (Ch. 8:69).
Միսիս դը Վրայսը արդեն տեսել էր Ջուլիայի խաղը: Նա սկսեց հրավերքներ անել , որպեսզի դերասանները ծանոթանան անտրեպրենյորների հետ, նրանց հրավիրում էր Գիլդֆորդի մոտ գտնվող իր հոյակապ առանձնատունը, որտեղ այնպիսի շքեղություն էր, որի մասին նրանք երազել անգամ չէին կարող: (Գլ 8:59)
There is not such a word that couldn’t be translated into another language at least descriptively, in other words, by extended combination of words of given language. Usually, entire explanation of a meaning of a word doesn’t keep within the frameworks of TT(target text), and a translator has to reduce to a minimum a translation-explanation, give only a part of the description or to footnote. Here are the examples from the novel:
Evie was Julia’s dresser and maid. … She was a cockney, … (Ch.10, p.83).
Իվին Ջուլիայի հանդերձարարուհին էր թատրոնում ու աղախինը` տանը:
The English word cockney is conveyed by not only transliteration but descriptively. The translator makes a foot-note: Քոքնի - բնիկ Իստ-Էնդցի (լոնդոնի բանվորական թաղամաս); Քոքնի բառը ունի տարբերակիչ արտասանություն և քերականորեն ճիշտ չէ:
“You can get back with the milk,” he’d said. (Ch.13:111).
Հետ արի առավոտյան , երբ կաթ բերելու լինես:
For English reader this sentence is natural and clear because it is an English tradition to drive milk in mornings but for TR it will be strange without any explanation.
For conveying of the lexica that doesn’t have any correspondences in TL replication is also used. It is creation of a new word, a word-combination or a compound word for notation of a corresponding object on the bases of the elements which exist materially in a language. This word is named calque (backbencher - պառլամենտի շարքային անպաշտոն դեպուտատ, sky-scraper -երկնաքեր, influence - ազդեցություն). Here are the examples from the text:
I might be squint-eyed and hump-backed. (Ch.7:62).
Կարելի է կարծել ,թե շլաչ եմ, կամ կուզս է դուրս եկած:
She felt like a high-born damsel, … (Ch.6: 60).
Ջուլիան նրան այնպես էր պահում, ասես նշանավոր տոհմից սերված մի չնաշխարհիկ կույս լիներ:
Replication of set expressions is widely used (people of good will –բարի կամքի տեր մարդիք, on the brink of war – պատերազմի եզրին):
When Julia and Michael had decided to try their luck in London… (Ch.8:68). –Երբ Ջուլիան և Մայքլը որոշեցին իրենց բախտը փորձել Լոնդոնում… (Գլ 8:59).
They drove the rest of the journey in stormy silence. (Ch.8:71). – Ճանապարհի մնացած մասն անցան սառցային լռության մեջ (Գլ8:61).
They had a small flat at Buckingham Gate… (Ch.7:62). – Նրանք մի փոքրիկ բնակարան ունեին Բուքինգհեմ Գեյթում: (Գլ7:52).
When Michael went away to the war Dolly pressed her to come and live in her house in Montagu Square, … (Ch.8:.69). – Երբ մայքլը մեկնում էր պատերազմ , Դոլլին աղաչում էր Ջուլիային գալ և ապրել Մոնթեգյու – սքվերի վրա գտնվող իր տանը: (Գլ8: 59).
1.3 Translation of Phraseological Units
1.3.1 Characteristics of English Figurative Phraseology
The predominance of importance of the whole over importance of components is a character of phraseological units (further PU), i.e. connected word-combinations. Therefore, a translator has to translate a PU as a single whole. PUs are subdivided into figurative and not figurative. The main task for a translator in translating of not figurative PUs is to keep up the norms of compatibility of words in the Armenian language as quite often influence of English compatibility leads to literalisms (to make a sacrifice – զոհաբերություն, to have a good sleep – լավ քուն ունենալ, to pay attention – ուշադրություն դարձնել).
He took no notice of the flippant rejoinder. (Ch.2:31). – Նա անուշադրության մատնեց նրա հանդուգն պատասխանը:(Գլ2: 21).
Julia spent a happy morning in bed reading the Sunday papers. (Ch.8, p.71).
Ջուլիան ամբողջ առավոտն անցկացրեց անկողնում` կարդալով կիրակնորյա հանդեսները:. (Գլ8: 62).
Cardinal problems in the field of translation of set expressions are connected with translating of figurative phraseology which imparts vivacity, brilliance and pliancy to language. The task for a translator is to convey into the Russian language not only the meaning of a PU but its figurativeness and expressiveness.
Julia was a damned good sort and clever, as clever as a bagful of monkeys; you could talk to her about anything in the world. (Ch.8:75).- Ջուլիան հիանալի կին էր, սրամիտ ու խելացի. Նրա հետ կարելի էր ամեն ինչի մասին զրուցել:(Գլ8: 65).
As a rule, an English PU has a lot of variant correspondences in the Armenian language and every time a translator has to make a choice.
She laid it on with a trowel. (Ch.8, p.75). (Lay it on with a trowel –ինչ որ բան չափազանց կոպիտ անել).
Նա այլևս չէր վախենում չափն անցկացնել. (Գլ 8:65).
1.3.2 Methods of Figurative Phraseology Translation
The best way of translating of a figurative PU is using of correspondences. These correspondences can be equivalent and variant.
Phraseological equivalent is such a figurative PU in TL which entirely corresponds to one in SL by meaning and stylistic and which is based on the same image. To this group belong international expressions. They are in most of Europe languages and have common origin. Usually, they bear biblical-mythological or literary character (sword of Damocles –Դամոկլյան սուր to cross the Rubicon – անցնել ռուբիկոնը, to shed crocodile tears –կոկորդիլեսի արցունքներ թափել).
I believe you’re prouder of your family than of looking like a Greek god. (Ch.3:36).
Ինձ թվում է դու ավելի շատ հպարտանում ես քո ընտանիքով, քան նրանով, որհունական Աստծւ պես գեղեցիկ ես: (Գլ 3:27).
Then, shark naked, she skipped on to the bed, stood up on it for a moment, like Venus rising from the waves, … (Ch.11:100).
Հետո ամբողջովին մերկ նետվեց մահճակալին, մի պահ կանգնեց հասակով մեկ, ալիքների միջից ելնող Վեներայի նման….(Գլ11:91).
She was as strong as a horse and never tired… (Ch.11.89)
Նա ձիու պես ուժեղ էր ու երբեք չէր հոգնում: (Գլ11:80).
“Poor lamb, he must be as poor as a church mouse.” (Ch.11:97).
Խեղճ գառնուկ , նա, հավանաբար, եկեղեցու մկան պես աղքատ է: (Գլ11:87).
There are two kinds of equivalents: absolute and relative. Absolute equivalents of set expressions coincide with an original in every respect: grammatically, lexically and stylistically (to cast a glance –հայացք գցել, the bitter truth -դառը ճշմարտություն, to play with fire –կրակի հետ խաղալ, to read between lines –հասկանալ տողատակը).
The strange thing was that when she looked into her heart… (Ch.18:170).
Եվ ահա թե ինչն էր տարօրինակը. Երբ Ջուլիան նայեց իր սրտի խորքը…. (Գլ18:158).
…she realized that it would be a bitter blow to his pride… (Ch.8:.75)
…նա հասկանում էր, որ Մայքլի հպարտությանը ծանր հարված կլինի… (Գլ8:65).
Relative equivalents of set expressions have grammatical or lexical differences from an original though they entirely coincide by meaning and stylistic (to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs –սպանել սագ, որը դնում ոսկե ձու).
Of course some of those Middlepool manufacturers were rolling in money,… (Ch.3:42). - Միդլփուլի ֆաբրիկանտները լողում են հարստության մեջ….(Գլ3: 33).
…that she was head over ears in love with him. (Ch.4, p.40)
…որ մինչև ականջների ծայրը սիրահարված է Մայքլին: (Գլ4:36).
He hankered for compliments…They were food and drink to him. (Ch.9:80).
Նա փափագում էր հաճոյախոսություններ լսել… Դրանք նրա համար հաց ու ջուր էին դարձել: (Գլ9:71).
There are a few figurative PUs in the English and Russian languages which coincide with both meaning and figurativeness. More often a translator has to use a Russian PU that has a similar meaning but based on another image (to work one’s fingers to the boneաշխատել առանց հոգնելու, to hit the bird in the eyes –հասնել նպատակին, on foot’s horse-ոտքով).
…he looked every inch a soldier. (Ch.7:64)
Մայքլը մինչև ուղն ու ծուծը զինվորականի տպավորություն էր թողնում:(Գլ7:55).
You can twist her round your little finger. (Ch.8:70)
Դու կարող ես նրան մատներիդ վրա խաղացնել: (Գլ8:60)
Gosh, I’m going down like a barrel of oysters. (Ch.4:46)
Գրողը տանի ամեն ինչ հալած յուղի պես է գնում:(Գլ4:36).
It was the only chink in his armour. (Ch.9, p.82).
Դա նրա աքիլեսյան գարշապարն է:. (Գլ9:71).
To keep figurativeness of an original in translation of a PU that has neither equivalent nor analogue in the Russian language sometimes a translator uses replication or literal transmission of the image which is in English PU. It is possible if the received expression is taken in by TR easily and naturally, in compliance with norms of the Russian language (liars must have good memories – ստախոս լավ հիշողության կարիք ունի, love me, love my dog –սիրիր ինձ, սիրիր և իմ շանը).
Men were creatures of habit; that gave women such a hold on them. (Ch.16:152)
Տղամարդիք իրենց սովորությունների գերին են, դա կանանց օգնում է բռում պահել նրանց: (Գլ16:141).
Plain living and high thinking, Miss Phillips. (Ch.10:87)
Համեստ ապրելակերպ ու վեհ իդեաներ,- Միսս Ֆիլիպս: (Գլ10:74)
If an English PU has neither equivalent nor analogue in the Armenian language and literal translation could lead to obscure literalism a translator has to refuse to convey figurativeness and use descriptive translation, i.e. to explain the meaning of a PU by free state words (a skeleton in the cupboard (closet) –ընտանեկան գաղտնիք, տհաճություն).
Julia could almost have wished that it had failed like the others in order to take him down a peg or two. (Ch.9:77). (To take sb. down a peg or two –պարծենալու առիթ չունենալ).
Ջուլիան գրեթե ուզւմ էր , որ այդ մեկն էլ ձախողվեր, որպեսզի Մայքլը պարծենալու առիթ չունենար: (Գլ9:68).
For once his cunning found its match. (Ch.9:77). (To find one’s match-Գտնել արժանի մրցակից)
Այս անգամ Մայքլի հակառակորդը նրան չէր զիջում: (Գլ9:67).
Lexical Transformations and Methods of Creation of Contextual Substitutes.
The task of a translator on a word and a word-combination doesn’t add up to finding of equivalent or variant correspondence only. It involves also the work on lexical reforms or transformations. There are three kinds of lexical transformations:
1) additions;
2) omissions;
3) substitutes.
Semantic additions are inadmissible in translation. A translator can do semantic additions, i.e. explanations, only out of TT (target text), in his/her notes that are taken outside of a text by footnotes. However, a translator has sometimes to add some words into the text so as not to break the norms of the Armenian language.
Over the chimney-piece was an old copy of Lawrence’s portrait of Kemble as Hamlet. (Ch.1:23).
Բուխարու վրա`Լորընսի վրձնին պատկանող Քեմբլի դիմանկարի մի հին կրկնօրինակ էր` Համլետի դերում: (Գլ1: 13). (Թոմաս Լոուրենս 1769-1830 անգլիացի նկարիչ Դիմանկարիչ)
They opened with a failure and this was succeeded by another. (Ch.9:77).
Նոր թատրոնում բեմադրված առաջջին պիեսը ձախողվեց և դրան հաջորդեց ևս մեկ ձախողում: (Գլ9:67).
In translation we add thwe words Նոր, բեմադրված which used in order to make the translation more understandable and correct.
She bustled Julia upstairs. (Ch.10:83).
Իվին Ջուլիային շտաօեցրեց դեպի ննջարան:(Գլ10:72).
Sometimes, a translator can do some omissions if it’s necessary in order to avoid breaking of linguistic or stylistic norms of the Armenian language. However, every omission must be justified. It’s not allowed to abuse this rule and omit everything that is difficult to translate.
It is typical of the English language using of paired synonyms. One of equivalent synonyms is omitted in translation as well as semantically surplus words. (The treaty was pronounced null and void. –Պայմանագիրը անվավեր համարել).
…if he had been an actor who loved her so much and had loved her so long… (Ch.11:93).
… Եթե Չարլզը մի դերասան լիներ, որն աըդքան երկար ու այդքան ուժգին սիրեր..(Գլ11:83).
…and then went into the bathroom to wash her face and eyes. (Ch.11:93).
... գնաց լողարան լվացվելու:(Գլ11:83).
She leant back in the chair and turned her head aside. (Ch.11:.92).
Նա հենվեց աթոռի թիկնակին ու շուռ եկավ:. (Գլ11:84).
As we see there are alltirations between ST and TT. For example the phrase wash her face and eyes we translate լվացվել:
Substitutes can be lexical and contextual. Lexical substitute is replacement of single concrete words or word-combinations of SL with that of TL which are not their lexicographic correspondence, i.e. they have other lexical meaning than the words of ST. Characteristics of the context can force a translator refuse to use both variant and equivalent correspondences in translation. In that case he/she looks for the variant of translation that suits for the concrete case. That kind of translation is named contextual substitute.
…he held himself with an arched back to keep his belly from sagging. (Ch.9:82)
…քայլելիս մեջքն ուղիղ էր պահում, որպեսզի որովայնի շրջանում մաշկը չկախվի: (Գլ9:71).
“Oh, well, it’s no good crying over spilt milk.” (Ch.10:82).
Կորցրածի համար չեն ափսոսում: (Գլ10: 73).
The nature of a contextual substitute depends on characteristics of individual context and a translator has every time to look for special ways of translation. This task requires creative solution, therefore, it’s not possible to have fundamental. Nevertheless, there are some methods which are used for creating of contextual substitutes:
1) method of concretization;
2) method of generalization;
3) method of antonymic translation;
4) method of compensation;
5) method of semantic development;
6) method of complete interpretation.
2.3.1 Methods of Creating of Contextual Substitute
Method of Concretization
Concretization represents substitution of a word of ST with more large meaning on the word of TL with narrower one. There are a lot of words in the English language with general wide meaning which should be concretized in translation. For example:
come –գալ, դառնալ, լինել, ծագել, հասնել,մոտենալ..
leave –թողնել, հեռանալ, լքել, կտակել, թույլտվություն
provide – ապահովել, մատակարարել, նախատեսել, հայթհայթել, մթերել
…two of her front teeth were missing but, notwithstanding Julia’s offer, repeated for years, to provide her with new ones she would not have them replaced. (Ch.10:82).
Առջևի ատամներից երկուսը բացակայում էին, ու, թեև Ջուլիան տարիներ շարունակ առաջարկում էր ատամները գցել տալ, Իվին չէր համաձայնում: (Գլ10:72).
By the example of the word thing that is met quite often in the novel it is seen how this word is concretized in different contexts.
“Extravagant little thing, aren’t you?...” (Ch.6:58).
“Շվայտ մանկիկ” (Գլ6: 49).
“We know a thing or two about financing plays now.” (Ch.8:70).
Դու շատ լավ գիտես,որ մեր օրերում պիեսները ֆինանսավորվում են երկու նկատառումներով: (Գլ 8: 60).
…and she thought of him as a nice old thing. (Ch.11:.90)
…Ջուլիան նրան համարում էր մի բարի ծերուկ: (Գլ11:80).
If he tried that sort of thing she’d play the outrage heroine on him, … (Ch.11, p. 93)
Եթե Չարլզի մտքով անցներ այդպես պահել իրեն, ապա կստանձներ վիրավոր հերոսուհու դերը…(Գլ 11: 80).
When tempers were frayed his good humour, his real kindliness, smoothed thing over. (Ch.9:79)
Երբ կրքերը բորբոքված էին, Մայքլի բարեհոգի հումորը,բայրացակամ վերաբերմունքը հաշտարար ազդեցություն էր գործում: (С.66).
But he was not a man who let a thing drop when he had set his mind to it. (Ch.8:69)
Բայց Մայքլը այն տղամարդկանցից չէր, որոնք հեշտ էին հրաժարվում իրենց մտադրություններից: (Գլ 8:60).
2.3.2 Method of Generalization
Generalization is substitution of a word with more narrow meaning on the word with larger one. This method is opposite to the method of concretization.
…but he wanted to be his own master and now in the last year of his articles he had broken away and taken this tiny flat. (Ch.11:98)
..,բայց ցանկացել է անկախ լինել և այժմ, իր ուսանելու վերջին տարիներին, առանձնացել է նրանցից ու վարձել այս փոքրիկ բնակարանը: (Գլ11:88).
The word article as a noun has the meanings հոդված, կետ, դրույթ, պայմանագիր, , օբյեկտ,. The meaning պայմանագիր suits more because there is also a verb article –գնալ պայմանագրային ուսման. Combined these meanings the translator extended the meaning of the word article and translated it as ուսում though this word has its own translation in English: studies, learning, and apprenticeship.
The essence of this method is replacement of affirmative construction with negative one and vice versa that is accompanied by corresponding lexical substitute of SL unit with its antonym in TL.
“Oh, my love, don’t you know there isn’t anything in the world I wouldn’t do for you?...” (Ch.8:72)
-Օ, իմ սեր,միթե չգիտեք որ ես ամեն ինչ կանեմ ձեզ համար: (Գլ8:62).
Julia wondered why servants stayed with them. (Ch.8, p.76)
Ջուլիան զարմանում էր , թե ինչու ծառաները չեն լքում իրենց:(Գլ8:65).
“Oh, I know people always lie about their debts,” she said with a laugh. (Ch.14, p.129)
Օ , ես գիտեմ, մարդիկ երբեք ճիշտը չեն ասում իրենց պարտքերի մասին: (Գլ14:111).
Metaphrase (or literal translation) of these sentences would contradict to stylistic norms of the Armenianlanguage and do them clumsy.
He was a trifle excited – but that is not unusual with him.
Նա մի քիչ հուզված էր-բայց դա նրա համար սովորական էր:
Here we have litotes – an affirmative utterance in a negative form. Litotes is widespread in the English language owing to a good deal of negative prefixes. It can be translated literally not always as in the Armenian language the negative не and the negative prefix չ- coincide in sounding. The words with the prefix չ- go rarely together with the negative particle не because of such combination is discordant.
This method is applied in that case when some linguistic phenomenon can’t be conveyed in TL. Compensating for loss which arises in translation because of some linguistic unit of ST can’t be translated a translator conveys the same information by the other means. Compensation is often used where it’s necessary to convey merely linguistic characteristics of ST (dialecticisms, individual features of speech, incorrect linguistic forms, pun, etc.) that have not always correspondences in TL. In translation of contaminative speech a translator can substitute for one linguistic means by others (grammatical – lexical, phonetic – grammatical and so on, in compliance with the Armenian language norms).
“For the little I eat I’ve got all the teeth I want. It’d only fidget me to ’ave a lot of elephant’s tusks in me mouth.”(Ch.10:.82) – the words of Julia’s maid who was a cockney.
«Իմ կերածի համար եղածն էլ բավական է: Դրանք ինձ միայն կխանգարեն ինչի համար բերանս լցնեմ փղի ժանիքներով:.» (Գլ10: 72).
Method of compensation illustrates clearly one of the basic positions of theory of translation – not single elements should be translated adequately but all text as a whole. In other words, there are untranslatable particulars but there are not untranslatable texts.
2.3.5 Method semantic development
Using in translation of a word or a word-combination, whose meaning is logical development of the meaning of a translating unit, is named semantic development. It means deviation from direct lexical correspondence of given word or word-combination. Thus, fundamentally semantic development doesn’t differ from more simple methods of lexical transformation, concretization and generalization. Distinction is only in nature and degree of complexity of the method. It’s necessary to have in view that semantic development always applies to not a single word but to a word-combination or a semantic group. Most often the meanings of such words and word-combinations in ST and TT are connected by cause-effect relations. At that substitution of cause by its effect (or vice versa) doesn’t break exactness of translation and, quite the contrary, is the best (at times the only) way of adequate conveying of ST content.
Mrs. De Vries was a widow. She was a short stout woman with a fine Jewish nose and fine Jewish eyes, a great deal of energy, a manner at once effusive and timid, and a somewhat virile air. She had a passion for the stage. (Ch.8, p.68).
Միսիս դը Վրայսը այրի էր: Նա կարճահասակ, գեռ կին էր,հրեհուհու գեղեցիկ քթով, գեղեցիկ սև աչքերով, աշխույժ, անզուսպ ու միևնույն ժամանակ , վեհերոտ շարժումներով, որի մոտ տղամարդկային ինչ-որ բան էր զգացվում: նա պաշտում էր թատրոնը:(Գլ 8: 59).
2.3.6 Method of Complete Interpretation
This method is used when there is not possible to proceed from lexical correspondences or contextual meanings of single words of SL but there is a need to understand semantic meaning of the whole and “re-express” it into TL by other words. This is one of the most difficult methods of transformational translation. This method is wide used in translation of PUs which reflect specificity of the English live spoken language (help yourself, please –հյուրասիրվեք,(ոչ թե օգնեք ձեզ); good riddance! –բարի ճանապարհ! (ոչ թե ուրախ առաքւմ), etc.).
He had tact and a pleasant manner, and he knew how to pull strings adroitly; it was inevitable that he should get on the staff of some general. (Ch.7:63).
Մայքլն օժտված էր չափի զգացումովու հաճելի շարժ ու ձև ուներ, հնարամիտ էր ու ձեռներեց. Պարզ էր ,որ շուտով որևէ գեներալ նրան իր շտաբն էր վերցնելու: (Գլ7:54).
Though they said he drove them like slaves, and they never had a moment to themselves, flash and blood couldn’t stand it, it gave them a sort of horrible satisfaction to comply with his outrageous demands. (Ch.2:27).
Թեև բողոքում էին, որ ճորտի պես են աշխատում, որ մի րոպե անգամ ազատ ժամանակ չունեն իրենց համար, որ ոչ մի հողածին չի դիմանա այդպիսի պայմանների, բայց այնուհանդերձ , առանձին գոհունակություն էին զգում կատարելով նրա վրդովիչ պահանջները: (Գլ2:17).
But the same phrase flash and blood couldn’t stand it (Ch.11, p.95) was translated ոչ ոք չէր կարող անտարբեռ անցնել(Գլ11: 82):
Conclusion
Reference List
Curme G. O. English Grammar, New-York 2003.
Jespersen O. Essential of English Grammar.London 1996
W. Somerset Maugham, Theatre, International Relations, Moscow 1979
Читалина Н.А., Учитесь Переводи
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