Witness protection

Министерство образования Республики Беларусь

Учреждение образования

«Гомельский государственный университет

имени Франциска Скорины»

 

 

Факультет иностранных языков

 

Кафедра английского языка

 

 

 

WITNESS PROTECTION

 

 

Реферат

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Исполнитель:                                        

магистрант кафедры

уголовного права и процесса   __________________  

 

 

 

Рецензент:                                     

преподаватель

кафедры английского языка   __________________  Вегеро М.В.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Гомель 2016

 

Table of Contents:

 

 

 

The Introduction

In recent years transnational organized crime has grown. Criminal organizations are becoming stronger and more diverse. They are engaging more and more frequently in systematic forms of cooperation designed to further their criminal activities. In the investigation and prosecution of crime, particularly the more serious and complex forms of organized crime, it is essential that witnesses, the cornerstones for successful investigation and prosecution, have trust in criminal justice systems.

Witnesses need to have the confidence to come forward to assist law enforcement and prosecutorial authorities. They need to be assured that they will receive support and protection from intimidation and the harm that criminal groups may seek to inflict upon them in attempts to discourage or punish them from cooperating.

The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and its Protocols call upon State Parties to introduce appropriate measures to prevent witness intimidation, coercion, corruption or bodily injury, and to strengthen international cooperation in this regard. Often though, even where such measures have been legislated, implementation remains less than satisfactory and further progress is needed particularly with regard to cross-border cooperation especially regarding the change of identity and relocation of at-risk witnesses.

 

1 The core issue

The ability of a witness to give testimony in a judicial setting or to cooperate with law enforcement investigations without fear of intimidation or reprisal is essential to maintaining the rule of law. Increasingly, countries are enacting legislation or adopting policies to protect witnesses whose cooperation with law enforcement authorities or testimony in a court of law would endanger their lives or those of their families.

Protection may be as simple as providing a police escort to the courtroom, offering temporary residence in a safe house or using modern communications technology (such as videoconferencing) for testimony. There are other cases, though, where cooperation by a witness is critical to successful prosecution but the reach and strength of the threatening criminal group is so powerful that extraordinary measures are required to ensure the witness’s safety. In such cases, resettlement of the witness under a new identity in a  new, undisclosed place of residence in the same country or even abroad may be the only viable alternative.

 

2 Witness protection: origins and selected approaches

Witness protection first came into prominence in the United States of America, in the 1970s, as a legally sanctioned procedure to be used in conjunction with a programme for dismantling Mafia-style criminal organizations. Until that time, the unwritten “code of silence” among members of the Mafia – known as omertà – held unchallenged sway, threatening death to anyone who broke ranks and cooperated with the police. Important witnesses could not be persuaded to testify for the state and key witnesses were lost to the concerted efforts of crime bosses targeted for prosecution [2, с. 395].

In 1970, the Organized Crime Control Act empowered the United States Attorney General to provide for the security of witnesses who had agreed to testify truthfully in cases involving organized crime and other forms of serious crime. Under the Attorney General’s authority, the Witness Security (WITSEC) Program of the United States ensures the physical security of at-risk witnesses predominantly through their resettlement to a new, undisclosed place of residence under a changed name and new identity details.

For a witness to qualify for the WITSEC Program, the case in question must be extremely significant, the witness’s testimony must be crucial to the success of the prosecution and there must be no alternative way of securing the witness’s physical safety. There are also other conditions, such as the witness’s psychological profile and ability to abide by the rules and restrictions imposed by the programme. Over the years, eligibility for coverage under the WITSEC Program has been extended from witnesses to Mafia-style crimes to include witnesses to other types of organized crime, such as those perpetrated by drug cartels, motorcycle gangs, prison gangs and violent street gangs.

Today, witness protection is viewed as a crucial tool in combating organized crime, and a large number of countries around the world have established such specialized programmes or have legislated their creation.

 

3 Key elements

The definition of “witness” may differ according to the legal system under review. For protection purposes, it is the function of the witness – as a person in possession of information important to the judicial or criminal proceedings – that is relevant rather than his or her status or the form of testimony. With regard to the procedural moment at which a person is considered to be a witness, the judge or prosecutor does not need to formally declare such status in order for protection measures to apply.

Witnesses can be classified into three main categories:

1. Justice collaborators;
2. Victim-witnesses;
3. Other types of witness (innocent bystanders, expert witnesses and others).

Justice collaborators

A person who has taken part in an offence connected with a criminal organization possesses important knowledge about the organization’s structure, method of operation, activities and links with other local or foreign groups. An increasing number of countries have introduced legislation or policies to facilitate cooperation by such people in the investigation of cases involving organized crime. These individuals are known by a variety of names, including cooperating witnesses, crown witnesses, witness collaborators, justice collaborators, state witnesses. There is no moral element involved in their motivation to cooperate. Many of them cooperate with the expectation of receiving immunity or at least a reduced prison sentence and physical protection for themselves and their families. They are among the main participants in witness protection  programmes.

The combination of lenience in (or even immunity from) prosecution with witness protection  is  considered  a  powerful  tool  in  the  successful  prosecution  of  organized crime cases.

However, the practice can raise ethical issues as it may be perceived as rewarding criminals with impunity for their crimes. To address those concerns, a growing number of legal systems provide that the «benefit» to collaborators is not complete immunity for their involvement in criminal activities but rather a sentence reduction that may be granted only at the end of their full cooperation in the trial process.

Following their release from prison, justice collaborators may be resettled to a new, secret location under a different identity if the threat to their life persists and other conditions are also fulfilled. Family members of justice collaborators, however, may be admitted to the programme while the witness is still in custody.

Sometimes prisoner-witnesses commit new crimes after their release from prison and admission to the programme and are subsequently terminated from witness protection. To ensure that their return to prison would not endanger their lives because of their previous cooperation, the prison administration may place them in an inmate monitoring programme and house them separately from other prisoners who are known to pose a danger to them.

Victim-witnesses

In accordance with the Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power (General Assembly resolution 40/34, annex), «victims» means persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative in Member States, including those laws proscribing the criminal abuse of power.

Victims play a central role in the criminal process. They may be the complainant initiating the proceedings or they may be witnesses for the prosecution. Because of the victims’ vulnerability, there is general agreement that they should receive assistance before, during and after their participation in a trial. To ensure their physical safety, general police and in-court protection measures may be applied. Victim-witnesses may also be included in a wit- ness protection programme if all other conditions are fulfilled.

Other  participants

Some countries consider for inclusion in witness protection programmes not only witnesses but also other categories of people whose relation to a criminal case may put their lives in danger, such as judges, prosecutors, undercover agents, interpreters and informants.

The use of informants and intelligence providers by the police is an important element in the investigation and prevention of crimes. Their role is different from that of witnesses, however, as they are not called to testify in court and, in some countries, it is not necessary to disclose the assistance they provide.

In most countries, it is only in exceptional circumstances that judges, prosecutors, under-cover agents, expert witnesses and interpreters are included in witness protection programmes. Intimidation or threats against their lives are considered to relate to their posts and the performance of their duties. They can qualify for special police protection, job transfers or early retirement, but their protection differs in nature from the protection measures intended for at-risk witnesses [3, с. 347-349].

Organized crime

Witness intimidation has become such a common feature of criminal investigations and prosecution that protection measures for witnesses are considered an essential element of a country’s arsenal against organized crime. The growing tendency of inquisitorial   legal systems to adopt elements once exclusive to adversarial systems – such as the greater value given to oral testimony and lesser weight to pretrial statements – has increased the importance of witnesses in criminal proceedings involving serious crimes and, accordingly, the obligation to preserve their evidence.

The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime provides that States parties should take appropriate measures to protect witnesses in criminal proceedings related to crimes covered by the Convention and its Protocols. Those crimes include:

1. Participation in an organized criminal group;
2. Money-laundering;
3. Corruption in the public sector;
4. Obstruction of justice;
5. Trafficking in persons;
6. Illicit manufacturing of and trafficking in firearms, their parts and components and ammunition;
7. Smuggling of migrants;
8. Other serious crimes as defined in the Convention, encompassing the elements of transnationality and involvement of an organized criminal group.

Terrorism

Witness protection has been particularly important in combating terrorism. The closed nature of terrorist groups makes it difficult to use traditional investigative methods with any  degree  of  success  and  often  requires  exceptional  measures.  In  some countries, counter-terrorism rather than organized crime was the primary consideration in introducing witness protection measures.

The resurgence of international terrorism at the beginning of the new millennium has changed the environment of witness protection, especially with regard to the protection of personal data. An uncomfortable relationship has developed between witness protection authorities and counter-terrorism agencies, as the former have come under increased pressure to share information relating to protected witnesses. Experience has been mixed. In some countries a large percentage of witnesses under protection are involved in terrorism-related cases. Elsewhere, the use of witness protection in terrorism cases has not been the rule. Terrorism investigations are generally handled by special counter-terrorism or intelligence agencies and their objective is most often prevention rather than prosecution.

Corruption

In the United Nations Convention against Corruption States parties are called upon to take appropriate measures for the protection of witnesses against retaliation or intimidation for their testimony. Under the Convention, protection should be  granted not just to witness collaborators but also to victims who become witnesses, and it can extend to family members or persons close to the witness. The measures envisaged include:

1. Physical security procedures, such as relocation and non-disclosure of information about the witness’s identity details and whereabouts;
2. Evidentiary rules to ensure the witness’s safety during courtroom testimony;
3. Signing of agreements among States parties to facilitate the international relocation of witnesses.

A number of countries include corruption among the crimes to be covered by witness protection programmes. Under that approach, the same criteria are used for the consideration of witnesses in cases involving corruption or organized crime. Although witnesses in serious corruption cases may occasionally face a threat to their lives, they are more often subjected to harassment at work, covert threats of retaliation, demotion or similar action. As a result, the criteria used for assessing the level of threat against witnesses in the majority of corruption cases are less exclusive than in organized crime cases, where the threat to the witness’s life that would give cause for inclusion in the witness protection programme is likely to be much higher. To address those problems and ensure that corruption is tackled effectively, a number of countries have chosen to establish separate protection programmes for witnesses in corruption cases [1, с. 35-40].

 

 

4 Entering witness protection

The witness protection authority may be:

1. A single official, such as the Minister or Secretary of Justice, the Attorney General, the public prosecutor or the police commissioner;
2. A multidisciplinary body consisting of representatives from the relevant ministries, the prosecutor’s office, the courts or the police force. Decisions can be based on either a unanimous or majority vote.

However, there are variations to the general rules mentioned above:

1. In Austria and South Africa, only the head of the witness protection unit can make decisions regarding admission to or removal from the witness protection programme;
2. In Germany, at the federal and state levels, the decision to admit witnesses to or remove them from the programme is made jointly by the witness protection unit and the public prosecutor.

Careful consideration should be given to how the witness protection authority exercises its discretionary powers and which measures it can apply. In most cases, decisions are not subject to any kind of external review because, for security and confidentiality reasons, no other authority has access to the information available to the witness protection authority. However, in some instances, the decisions made by the witness protection authority are subject to internal or judicial review.

Before admitting a witness to a protection programme, an assessment needs to be conducted to provide the witness protection authority with all the information it requires to make a valid and informed decision. Some of the most important elements of that assessment are:

1. The level of threat to the person’s life;
2. The witness’s personality and psychological fitness. Witnesses must be  able  to  adjust to and follow a stressful programme that isolates them from the places and persons  they know;
3. The danger that the witness, typically a former collaborator of the defendant, may pose to the public if relocated under a new identity;
4. The critical value of the witness’s trial testimony for the prosecution and the impossibility of gaining such knowledge  elsewhere;
5. The importance of the case in dismantling criminal organizations.

Such an assessment may also consider other aspects, such as the witness’s family situation (marital status, number of children or other protected family members, criminal record of spouse).

The assessment process is an unsettling period for the applicant. If necessary, interim protection may be offered until a final decision is reached.

Witnesses must be under serious threat to be admitted to a witness protection programme. It is less important what type of witness they are or what type of crime they have observed. In general, the threat must be against the witness’s life; it does not extend to his or her well-being or property.

A threat assessment can be defined as the investigative and operational techniques used by law enforcement authorities to identify, assess and manage the risk and potential perpetrators of targeted violence against a witness. In the majority of programmes, the threat assessment is performed by the witness protection unit alone or in cooperation with the regular police. In some programmes, such as those of Austria and the United States, the assessment is performed by regular police officers or an investigative agency in order to maintain separation from the protection unit, especially when the unit lacks relevant information. In the case of international relocation, the witness protection units of the countries involved would, as a rule, have to cooperate in evaluating the threat.

A distinction between “threat” and “risk” should be made. A threat assessment looks at whether the life of the witness is in serious danger, and should address issues such as:

1. The origin of the threat (group or person);
2. The patterns of violence;
3. The level of organization and culture of the threatening group (for example, street gang, Mafia-type group, terrorist cell);
4. The group’s capacity, knowledge and available means to carry out threats.

A risk assessment examines the chances of the threat materializing and assesses how it can be mitigated. The assessment is conducted according to set standards and using a matrix. Action is taken to reduce the probability of the threat being carried out, for example by using unmarked cars to transport witnesses, resettling witnesses temporarily or providing them with new identities. The assessment is conducted by the witness protection unit and is a key factor in providing tailor-made protection to suit the needs of the witnesses.

In the case of emergency measures taken before the start of a formal protection programme or during the course of the programme, threat assessments are often undertaken for particular operations, such as transportation to court and family reunions, and provide the basis for allocating resources and identifying appropriate protection arrangements.

Throughout the programme and even after its termination, it may be necessary to carry out periodic threat evaluations in order to decide whether to continue, upgrade, discontinue or reinstate protection measures.

Profiling a witness assists the protection authority in making an informed decision about the measures to be taken, the methods to be implemented and the contingency plans to be introduced should the programme be compromised. The assessment is a management  tool that provides authorities with information on the kind of protection and support services that witnesses require and how they are to be managed.

It is often stated that ideal witnesses do not exist, just witnesses who need to be managed differently.

In deciding whether to admit someone to a witness protection programme, the competent authority must balance the threat to the life of the witness against:

1. The character of the witness and his or her ability to maintain secrecy. Almost invariably, the failure of an operation is due to the intentional or unintentional disclosure of information by the protected person. If the disclosure is significant, the witness’s identity and place of residence needs to be changed a second time, putting the programme under severe strain. It is generally accepted that certain categories of witness cannot qualify for any protection programme because they are careless or irresponsible;
2. The likelihood of relapse into criminal activity and the associated risk to persons in the witness’s new and unsuspecting social environment. Most protected witnesses are career criminals. Some try to hide behind their new identities to perpetrate new crimes. Witness protection programmes go to great lengths to ensure that relocated witnesses do not go on to victimize others with impunity;
3. The witness’s willingness to abide by the strict limitations imposed by the programme on his or her personal  life. Entering a witness protection programme requires severe personal sacrifices. Participants are removed from their family and social environment and must break with friends and life as they know it. Evidence has shown that during the application period, when witnesses are still in serious danger and the threat is fresh, they are willing to follow any measure that guarantees their safety. As time passes, however, some gain a sense of confidence and refuse to resign themselves to imposed restrictions and, within a few years, most decide to leave the programme or are removed.

Entering a protection programme requires the informed consent of the witness. Witness protection authorities should clearly and realistically explain to witnesses the measures  to be taken and the limitations to their personal life that participants in the programme need to accept. Voluntary participation in the programme on the basis of complete and informed consent is ensured by the signing of a memorandum  of  understanding  between the witness and the protection unit. Participation entails the obligation to  actively support all protection measures undertaken and to abstain from compromising the security of the programme by, for example, discussing related matters with third persons or the  media.

Upon admission to the programme, witnesses are required to conclude with the witness protection unit a memorandum of understanding, which, in most cases, is understood to be a document that defines the actions of the witness protection authority on the one  hand and of the witness on the other, in detail and in advance. It is not considered an agreement or contract and cannot be challenged before a court of law. However, the memorandum of understanding is, in some countries, legally binding and its method of implementation, or the lack thereof, by the protection unit can be subject to judicial review. Whether a memorandum of understanding is to be considered a contract or not also depends on whether witness protection units are liable for damages or harm caused to protected witnesses because of weak or ineffective measures.

Regardless of whether the memorandum of understanding is legally binding or not, protection units still need to establish procedures for handling complaints by witnesses regarding the implementation of the memorandum of understanding, especially the type of measure applied and the abuse or misuse of power by the witness protection unit. Any kind of investigation into such complaints or allegations should be conducted outside the public domain in order to ensure both that the individual or systemic problem can be corrected and that sensitive information about the witness is not divulged.

A  memorandum  of  understanding  usually includes:

1. A declaration by the witness that his or her admission to the protection programme is entirely voluntary and that any assistance must not be construed as a reward for testifying;
2. The scope and character of the protection and assistance to be provided;
3. A list of measures that could be taken by the protection unit to ensure the physical security of the witness;
4. The obligations of the witness under the programme and possible sanctions for violations, including removal from the programme;
5. The conditions governing the programme’s termination.

Both the witness and the persons accompanying the witness in the programme are required to conclude a memorandum of understanding with the protection unit. For security reasons, they are not usually provided with copies of the signed document, which is kept safe by the protection unit so that it cannot be found by someone searching for the witness.

In urgent cases, warranted by the level and immediacy of threat, witnesses may be placed provisionally under protection before a memorandum of understanding is signed and while their admission to the programme is still under consideration. The length of this period ranges from several days to much longer periods (three months in Slovakia, and as long as it takes for the witness protection authority to gather sufficient information to reach a decision on the matter in Italy). Such temporary urgent measures can often be expensive and require coordination with special police units.

They usually consist of:

1. Regular surveillance;
2. Close protection;
3. Temporary resettlement to a secure area in another part of the country;
4. Protective incarceration;
5. Transfer to a special unit within the same prison, if the witness is serving a prison sentence;
6. Financial support.

Provisional protection does not necessarily lead to inclusion in a witness protection programme. If the witness is not regarded as essential to the prosecution or if the level of threat is not significant enough to warrant relocation and a change of identity, witnesses will not be offered the possibility of participating in such a programme. Final acceptance to the programme is conditional upon signature of a memorandum of understanding [5, с. 3-7].

5 Relocation and identity change

Identity change is an exceptional measure applied only when the threat against the witness’s life cannot be averted through temporary relocation or other measures. It consists of the creation of a new personal profile for the witness, hiding his or her original identity by issuing personal documents under a new name, resettling him or her in a new area and creating a substitute life history.

The witness’s previous status is mirrored, to the fullest extent possible, in his or her new identity. The fundamental principle is that the witness protection programme should be neither of benefit nor detrimental to the witness. The extra effort to mirror the witness’s original particulars is made to minimize the risk of exposure inherent in providing a new personal history and to facilitate ownership of the new identity by the witness. Furthermore, it provides a safeguard against recidivism. The witness’s criminal record is transferred to the new name but in a manner that makes it impossible for third parties to trace the original conviction or identity of the witness.

The number of personal details altered varies in different countries. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom and the United States, the authorities do not completely reinvent the witness’s life but only change what is necessary. In other countries, such as Italy, New Zealand additional items are changed. In all cases, however, there must be no connection between the old and new identities so that, no matter what resources are at the disposal of a criminal group, it is impossible for it to trace the witness.

In that respect, a series of measures should be taken to resolve practical problems, such as leaving as a forwarding address a post office box number belonging to the witness protection unit for any correspondence related to the witness’s old identity and address. The unit could also seek a court order prohibiting the publication of the witness’s old photographs to further lessen the chance of identification.

Despite advances in biometric identification, ordinary physical characteristics are those most used to identify people. In some countries, the law allows plastic surgery to be used as a means of giving a witness a new identity by altering his or her facial features. Such provisions usually refer to the removal of distinguishing marks on the face or body such as tattoos, moles and birthmarks.

The witness protection unit can decide when to issue a new identity, but in most cases that is done after the trial has ended. Until the new identity emerges, there should be no interruption of the security and support services provided to the endangered witness.

Since their initial establishment in the 1970s, witness protection programmes have undergone several changes, mostly as a result of experience gained, to make the systems more effective. The changes have included tightening the admission criteria, allowing persons close to the witness to participate and making the conditions for leniency stricter [4, с. 15-18].

 

The Conclusion

It is generally recognized that the State has an obligation to provide assistance and protection to persons who are likely to be harmed because of their collaboration with the criminal justice system. There are different means of protection.

The kind chosen in each case depends to a large degree on the type of witness (victim, vulnerable witness, justice collaborator etc.), the type of crime (crime within the family, sex crime, organized crime etc.) and the level of threat or intimidation.

Witness protection programmes are considered to be a last-resort response in providing security to threatened witnesses. They were established to address the inability of regular police protection measures to provide a secure environment for witnesses willing to testify against powerful criminal defendants, such as members of the Mafia.

Over the years, witness protection programmes have developed sophisticated practices allowing the change of identity of threatened witnesses and their relocation to a safe place as the only effective means of protection. The success of those operations has had a positive impact on securing crucial evidence and has made witness protection a key element in efforts to effectively fight organized crime.

 

Glossary

		A
1	ability		способность
2	additional items		дополнительные элементы
3	address		адрес
4	admission		прием
5	adopting		принятие
6	agreement		соглашение
7	allow		разрешить
8	alternative		альтернатива
9	ammunition		боеприпасы
10	appropriate measures		соответствующие меры
11	assessment		оценка
12	assist		помощь
13	attempts		попытки
14	authorities		власти
		B
15	birthmarks		родимые пятна
16	bodily injury		телесные повреждения
17	body		тело
18	box		коробка
		C
19	car		автомобиль
20	careless		неосторожный
21	cartels		картели
22	central role		центральная роль
23	change of identity		смена идентичности
24	changes		изменения
25	character		персонаж
26	characteristics		характеристики
27	close protection		личная охрана
28	coercion		принуждение
29	communications		коммуникации
30	complex forms		сложные формы
31	components		компоненты
32	confidence		уверенность
33	conjunction		вместе
34	connection		соединение
35	consideration		рассмотрение
36	contract		договор
37	conviction		приговор
38	cornerstones		краеугольные камни
39	correspondence		переписка
40	corruption		коррупция
41	counter-terrorism agencies		контртеррористические агентства
42	courtroom		зал суда
43	covert threats		скрытые угрозы
44	criminal activities		преступная деятельность
45	criminal group		преступная группа
46	criminal justice systems		системы уголовного правосудия
47	criminal organizations		преступные организации
48	criminal record of spouse		судимость супруга
49	criteria		критерии
50	critical		критические
51	cross-border cooperation		приграничное сотрудничество
52	crucial		решающее значение
53	custody		стража
		D
54	danger		опасность
55	decision		решение
56	declaration		декларация
57	degree		степень
58	demotion		понижение в должности
59	details		детали
60	different		разные
61	different means		разные средства
62	disposal		распоряжение
63	distinguishing marks		опознавательные знаки
64	diverse		разнообразная
65	document		документ
66	drug cartels		наркокартели
		E
67	early retirement		досрочный выход на пенсию
68	economic loss		экономические потери
69	effective		эффективное
70	effectively fight		эффективно бороться
71	efforts		усилия
72	emergency measures		экстренные меры
73	emerge		вырисовываться
74	emotional suffering		эмоциональные страдания
75	enforcement		исполнение
76	enforcement authorities		правоохранительные органы
77	escort		эскорт
78	essential		эфирное
79	establishment		создание
80	ethical issues		этические проблемы
81	even		даже
82	evidence		доказательства
83	evidentiary rules		правила представления доказательств
84	experience		опыт
85	expert witnesses		свидетели-эксперты
86	external review		внешний обзор
		F
87	face		лицо
88	facial features		черты лица
89	families		семьи
90	family reunions		воссоединение семьи
91	fear		страх
92	fear of intimidation		страх запугивания
93	fight		бой
94	financial support		финансовая поддержка
95	forward		вперед
96	frequently		часто
97	from		от
98	fundamental rights		основные права
		G
99	gang		банда
100	general police		генерал полиции
101	generally		вообще
102	growing tendency		растущая тенденция
		H
103	harassment		домогательства
104	house		дом
		I
105	identity		личность
106	identity change		изменения идентичности
107	identity details		паспортные данные
108	illicit manufacturing		незаконное изготовление
109	immunity		иммунитет
110	implementation		реализация
111	importance		значение
112	impossible		невозможно
113	incarceration		лишения свободы
115	increasingly		все чаще
116	ineffective measures		неэффективные меры
117	informed decision		осознанное решение
118	inmate monitoring programme		заключенный программы мониторинга
119	innocent bystanders		невинные прохожие
120	international cooperation		международное сотрудничество
121	interruption		прерывание
122	intimidation		запугивание
123	investigation		расследование
124	irresponsible		безответственный
		J
126	judge		судья
127	judicial review		судебное рассмотрение
128	judicial setting		судебное разбирательство
129	justice		справедливость
130	justice collaborators		справедливость коллаборационистов
		K
131	key element		ключевой элемент
132	knowledge		знания
		L
133	large		большие
134	large percentage		большой процент
135	last-resort		последней инстанции
136	law		закон
137	law enforcement		правоохранительные
138	law enforcement investigations		расследования, проводимые правоохранительными органами
139	legally sanctioned procedure		юридически закрепленная процедура
140	legislation		законодательство
141	length		длина
142	leniency		снисходительность
143	level		уровень
144	level of intimidation		уровень запугивания
145	level of threat		уровень угрозы
146	life		жизнь
147	limitations		ограничения
		M
148	majority		большинство
149	majority vote		большинство голосов
150	make		делать
151	marital status		семейное положение
152	marks		метки
153	matter		дело
154	measure		мера
155	members		члены
156	memorandum  of  understanding		меморандум о взаимопонимании
157	mental injury		психические травмы
158	method of implementation		метод реализации
159	method of operation		метод работы
160	modern		современные
161	modern communications technology		современные коммуникационные технологии
162	moles		кроты
163	money-laundering		отмывание денег
164	motorcycle gangs		мотоциклетные банды
165	multidisciplinary		многопрофильный
		N
166	necessary		необходимые
167	new		новые
168	non-disclosure of information		неразглашение информации
169	number		число
170	number of children		количество детей
		O
171	obligation		обязательство
172	obstruction of justice		воспрепятствование осуществлению правосудия
173	often though		хотя часто
174	ordinary		обычные
175	ordinary physical characteristics		обычные физические характеристики
176	organizations		организации
177	organized crime		организованная преступность
		P
178	participation		участие
179	people		люди
180	period		период
181	personal data		личные данные
182	personal details		личные данные
183	personal sacrifice		личная жертва
184	physical		физические
185	physical protection		физическая защита
186	physical safety		физическая безопасность
187	physical security procedures		физическая безопасность процедуры
188	plastic surgery		пластическая хирургия
189	police		полиция
190	police commissioner		комиссар полиции
191	police force		сила полиции
192	possible sanctions		возможные санкции
193	post office		почтовое отделение
194	potential perpetrators		потенциальные преступники
195	practical problems		практические проблемы
196	practice		практика
197	pressure		давление
198	prison gang		тюремные банды
199	problems		проблемы
200	procedure		процедура
201	profile		профиль
202	prominence		известность
203	prosecution		обвинение
204	prosecution of crime		преследование преступности
205	prosecutor		прокурор
206	prosecutor’s office		прокуратура
207	prosecutorial authorities		органы прокуратуры
208	protection		защита
209	protection measures		меры защиты
210	protection purposes		в целях защиты
211	protection unit		блок защиты
212	protective incarceration		лишение свободы в целях защиты
213	providing a police escort		предоставление полицейского эскорта
214	provisional protection		временная правовая охрана
215	provisions		положения
216	psychological fitness		психологическая пригодность
217	psychological profile		психологический профиль
218	public prosecutor		прокурор
219	public sector		государственный сектор
		R
220	reach		достичь
221	recent		последние
222	regardless		независимо от
223	regular		регулярные
224	regular surveillance		регулярные наблюдения
225	relevant ministries		соответствующие министерства
226	relocation		переезд
227	removal		удаление
228	reprisal		репрессии
229	resettlement		переселение
230	respect		уважение
231	result		результат
232	retaliation		возмездие
233	risk		риск
234	rule		правило
		S
235	safe		безопасный
236	safe place		безопасное место
237	scope		область
238	secure area		охраняемая зона
239	security		безопасность
240	sentence reduction		смягчение наказания
241	separation		разделение
242	series of measures		ряд мер
243	services		услуги
244	setting		установка
245	several		несколько
246	similar action		аналогичные действия
247	simple		простой
248	single official		один чиновник
249	situation		ситуация
250	smuggling of migrants		ввоз мигрантов
251	social environment		социальная среда
252	sophisticated practices		изощренные практики
253	spouse		супруга
254	street		улица
255	strength		прочность
256	stressful		стрессовый
257	strict		строгий
258	subsequently		впоследствии
259	substantial impairment		существенное обесценение
260	success		успех
261	successful		успешный
262	successful prosecution		успешное судебное преследование
263	suffered harm		причиненный вред
264	support		поддержка
265	systematic forms of cooperation		систематические формы сотрудничества
		T
266	tattoos		татуировки
267	technology		технология
268	temporary resettlement		временное переселение
269	temporary residence		временное проживание
270	terminate		расторгнуть
271	termination		прекращение
272	terrorism		терроризм
273	testimony		свидетельство
274	though		хотя
275	tightening the admission criteria		ужесточение критериев приема
276	trafficking in firearms		оборот огнестрельного оружия
278	transfer		перевод
279	transnational organized crime		транснациональная организованная преступность
280	transportation		транспорт
281	trial		судебный
282	type of crime		тип преступности
283	type of witness		тип свидетеля
		U
284	uncomfortable relationship		неудобные отношения
285	undisclosed place of residence		нераскрытые места жительства
286	unit		блок
287	unmarked cars		машины без опознавательных знаков
288	usually		обычно
		V
289	victim-witnesses		жертвы-свидетели
290	videoconferencing		видеоконференцсвязь
291	violence		насилие
292	violent street gangs		жестокие уличные банды
293	voluntary		добровольное
294	vulnerability		уязвимость
		W
295	willingness		готовность
296	without		без
297	witness intimidation		запугивание свидетелей
298	witness protection		свидетель защиты
299	witnesses		свидетели
		Y
300	years		лет

 

 

 

The list of references

 

1. Good Practices for the Protection of Witnesses in Criminal Proceedings Involving Organized Crime // United Nations. – New York, 2008.
2. Montanino, Fred Unintended victims of organized crime witness protection // Criminal Justice Policy Review, 2013. – vol. 2, № 4.
3. Nicholas Fyfe and James Sheptycki, International trends in the facilitation of witness co-operation in organized crime cases // European  Journal  of  Criminology, 2006. – vol. 3, № 3.
4. Results of the second meeting of the Intergovernmental Expert Group to Prepare a Study on Fraud and the Criminal Misuse and Falsification of Identity, 2007. – № 8.
5. Serious Organised Crime and Police Act: guidance notes // United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Home Office, 2005.