Medieval England

Introduction

The Middle Ages encompass one of the most exciting periods in English History. England and the English, or at least their rulers, have been the dominant power in the British isles for a long time. We recognize this every time we use the phrase "Queen of England." There is no title "Queen of England" today - Elizabeth is Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. But England has absorbed the other cultures of the British islands, and the mix of institutions, language, and ideas we call British has a predominant English element. If we want to understand the British heritage in the English-speaking countries of the world, we must understand England first.

Another reason to study medieval England:   it gives us an opportunity to study some of the developments of the European Middle Ages within the limits of a single country.   England is not a "typical" European country - which one is? - but is an important one.   If you understand how the Middle Ages affected it, you have a good start to understanding the Middle Ages in Europe as a whole[1].

The one thousand year span of time between the fall of the ancient world and the beginning of the modern era, the middle age, is, in English, commonly referred to as the Middle Ages. English-speaking scholars break this long period of time into three distinct phases: the early Middle Ages, the high Middle Ages, and the late Middle Ages.

Scholars of the early Middle Ages concern themselves primarily with the transition away from the characteristic cultural, social, and institutional systems of Greece and Rome. They begin with the Germanic migrations, formerly referred to as the barbarian invasions. The arrival of new peoples in the domain of the old Roman empire meant radical changes to the fabric of European civilization. In the past, scholars viewed the loss of Roman ways as a great tragedy, one that would only be corrected one thousand years later when ancient culture was "reborn" in the Renaissance. This way of thinking gave birth to the somewhat derogatory term the Dark Age. Today, however, we appreciate much more that the ancient ways of the Romans did not disappear but, rather, were transformed. They were infused with new ways of doing things and new ways of thinking. Although many Roman traditions and institutions were lost or decayed, others continued on or were transformed. One great link between the ancient world and the early Middle Ages, of course, was Latin. Latin remained the lingua franca, the common tongue, of the educated in Europe. Another great link between ancient Rome and early medieval Europe, of course, was the Catholic church. During the early Middle Ages, the church succeeded in converting most of Europe to Christianity. So, the study of the early Middle Ages is concerned with examining the transformation of Roman Europe into something new and exciting.

The high Middle Ages, from roughly about the turn of the millennium to about 1300, saw the flourishing of medieval culture. During this era many of the institutions typically associated with medieval Europe peaked and began to decline. Knighthood and chivalry, the Crusades, the Roman Catholic papacy, and monasticism are just some major examples. In the high Middle Ages, as populations settled and the great migrations of the prior era ended, kingdoms began to take shape. As a result, it is during this time that Europeans laid the foundations for their modern nation-states. The artistic climate of this time fostered great innovations. The survival of the great gothic cathedrals is a testimony to this fact. At the same time, the rediscovery of Aristotle, lost in the West for hundreds of years, sparked major innovations, too. Kings and princes competed to establish the first universities whose students and masters articulated new ways of thinking and ordering knowledge. In the south of Europe, the reconstitution of Roman law allowed civil and ecclesiastical jurists to reassess and redevelop their systems of justice.

By the late Middle Ages, the west stood on the threshold of a new world. Between 1300 and 1500, everything Europeans knew to be true changed. The beginning of the fourteenth century saw the arrival in Europe of the Great Famine with its ensuing demographic crisis. Hundreds of thousands starved to death after 1315. Two generations later, and linked to that climatic event, the first wave of plague hit Europe. Although scholars no longer accept without reservation that this was Bubonic plague, the impact of the Black Death is incontrovertible. In the following years, some one-third of Europeans died suddenly. While all of this happened, the major super powers of the day, England and France, battled each other in the Hundred Years War. The papacy, chased out of Italy, relocated to the city of Avignon, which is today in southern France. Although the popes eventually returned to Rome, a split in the church resulted in not one but two, and, eventually, three, popes. Challenges to Catholicism continued in the fourteenth century and, unlike earlier perceived heresies, the church was unable to silence them effectively. From England to Bohemia Europeans expressed their discontent with the broken church. Meanwhile, one the great symbolic remnants of chivalric idealism, the Knights Templar, were disgraced. The king of France burned the Grand Master of the Templars while the pope, the knight's protector, stood by. Throughout all of these crises new economic powers were stirring. In urban centres everywhere a growing class of merchants and artisans flexed their economic muscles and demanded a political voice. These transformations continued until, at the end of the fifteenth century, Europe appeared very different. The hegemony of the Catholic church was broken. The discovery of the New World greatly expanded the boundaries of European expansion. New technologies, such as the importation of gunpowder from China, and improvements to ship building, changed the face of warfare. The solidification of national monarchies led to the development of international relations on a state level. These and other factors signalled the end of the middle age and the start of something new and different.

Medieval Studies is not simply about studying the past for its own sake. In that light, the study of western society between the fall of the Roman Empire and the discovery of the New World may even appear, to some, outmoded, Euro-centric, or irrelevant. In fact, however, such study is essential in helping us to interpret the world around us.

A few examples illustrate. In a post 9/11 world it is essential to understand the historical inter-connectedness and mutual evolution between Islam and Christianity or Europe and the Near East[2]. It is equally vital, as Europe moves toward ever greater legal, economic, and political union, and as regional resentments toward such a move increase, to understand European hegemony prior to the rise of nation-states and nationalism. Further, the lessons of past empires are instructive as super powers topple opposing regimes and are then met with forceful resistance. More concretely, when first-world countries seek to develop the third-world, medieval peasants provide successful agricultural strategies and technologies. Parliament, religion, universities: all have medieval structures as do our sexual values, our gender norms, and many of our cultural priorities and biases. So, if you want to understand where we are, you need to understand where how we got here. Medieval Studies gives students the tools necessary to interpret the world around them at the most fundamental level.

Part I

This British nation has a monarchy founded by the Kings of Wessex over eleven hundred years ago, a Parliament and universities formed over seven hundred years ago, a language with its roots in the mists of time, and the richest vocabulary in the world. This is no recent historical invention: it is the cherished creation of generations, and as we work to build a new and better Europe, we must never forget the traditions and inheritance of our past. I never leave Britain without the spirit sinking just a little, and it always lifts the heart to set foot here once again.[3]

Albeit in less strident form, these rather idiosyncratic comments of Mr Major echo those made by Lady Thatcher in Paris at the bicentennial of the French Revolution, when she spoke with more force than accuracy about Magna Carta and 1688.[4] Taken together, their remarks suggest that when it comes to producing a contemporary account of Britain’s past, the most unreconstructed and uncompromising form of Whig history which survives today is that preached from 10 Downing Street by Tory Prime Ministers.

1) Short observe of the timeline of Middle age

England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the Medieval period — from the end of Roman rule in Britain through to the Early Modern period. It is in this formative period that England emerged as a unified and political entity, and transformed over several centuries from a diverse, warring and fractious land of petty kingdoms, into one of Europe's most centralised, powerful and richest states.

Early Medieval England corresponds to Anglo-Saxon England, which began with the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in southern Britain. In this period, the Brythonic kingdoms whose territories lay within the area of modern England were conquered by Jutes, Angles and Saxons Germanic tribes, from the contemporary Angeln and Jutland areas of Northern Germany and mainland Denmark. Political takeover of other areas of England proceeded piecemeal and was not completed until the 10th century.

Similarly, the end of the medieval period is usually dated by the rise of what is often referred to as the English Renaissance in the reign of Henry VIII, and the Reformation in Scotland, or else to the establishment of a centralised, bureaucratic monarchy by Henry VII. From a political point of view, the Norman conquest of England divides medieval England into two distinct phases of cultural and political history. From a linguistic point of view the Norman Conquest had only a limited effect, Old English evolving into Middle English, although the Anglo Norman language would remain the language of those that ruled for two centuries at least, before mingling with Middle English.

At the height of pre-Norman medieval English power, a single English king ruled to the borders with Scotland and Wales. After the Norman Conquest, Anglo-Norman power intruded into Wales with increasing vigour. Southern England had closer relationships with Normandy, Flanders and Brittany, owing to relative proximity, than had the other regions.

The emergence of Manorialism in England is described including sections on Manorialism, Manors, the Lord of the Manor, the Lady of the Manor and a full description of a Manor House in England during the Medival times. Facts and interesting information about the people who lived under the system of feudalism and manorialism. The land owned by the lord of the manor varied in size but were typically between 1200 - 1800 acres. The land belonging to the 'Lord of the Manor' in England was called his "demesne," or domain which he required to support himself and his retinue. The lady of the manor in England had to take over the running of the manor when her husband was absent. She was a figure of authority. And her word was literally law when her husband was absent. The lives and times of the following people who lived in England - the Vassals and the Oath of Fealty, the Fief, Serfs, Peasants and the Villein. What free time did the people of England get? The Religious Festivals provided some relief from the day to day drudge of everyday life with Medival Holidays in England. The methods of Farming in England was dictated by the Feudalism and the Manor system or Manorialism. A fief was a vassal's source of income, granted to him by his lord in exchange for his services.

2)Medieval Architecture

Art in the Middle ages was inseparable from religion. It was infused with spiritual symbolism and meaning. The purpose of art was to awe and inspire the viewer with the grandeur of God. It also served to symbolize what people believed. Pope Gregory the Great, he of the Gregorian chants, said, "painting can do for the illiterate what writing does for those who read." He might have added that sculpture could serve the same purpose.
 

The mission of the sculptor, whose work was seen almost exclusively adorning church buildings, was to educate as well as decorate. He brought Biblical tales and moral lessons to life in stone. Carvings were not just religious, however. Everywhere you look there is evidence of pre-Christian symbology in church sculpture; animals real and fanciful, scenes of everyday life, and the pagan "Green man" peering out from amongst carefully wrought leaves and vines of stone. Sculpture burst forth gloriously in the Romanesque era, with little regard for classical conventions of proportion of figures.

At the beginning of the Norman era the style of architecture that was in vogue was known as Romanesque, because it copied the pattern and proportion of the architecture of the Roman Empire. The chief characteristics of the Romanesque style were barrel vaults, round arches, thick piers, and few windows.

The easiest point to look for is the rounded arch, seen in door openings and windows. In general the Romanesque churches were heavy and solid, carrying about them an air of solemnity and gloom.

These early Norman churches were not always so stark as they seem today, however. In their heyday the church walls were hung with tapestries or painted richly. The statues of the saints were gilded (on some you can still see traces of the paint if you look closely), and the service books were inlaid with gold, jewels, and ivory. Chalices and reliquaries were encrusted with gems.

Beginning in 12th century France a new style of architecture and decoration emerged. At the time it was called simply "The French Style", but later Renaissance critics, appalled at the abandonment of classical line and proportion, derisively called it "Gothic". This was a reference to the imagined lack of culture of the barbarian tribes, including the Goths, which had ransacked Rome in the twilight of the Roman Empire.

Gothic architecture is light, spacious, and graceful. Advances in architectural technique learned from contacts with the Arab world during the Crusades led to innovations such as the pointed arch, ribbed vault, and the buttress. Heavy Romanesque piers were replaced by slender clusters of columns. Window sizes grew enormously, as did the height of vaults and spires.

Sculpture became free standing rather than being incorporated in columns. The new expanse of window space was filled with gloriously rich coloured glass. The easiest point of reference to look for in a Gothic church is the pointed arch, seen in window openings and doors. Also, the later Gothic churches had very elaborate decoration, especially the "tracery", or stonework supporting the stained glass windows.

Churches were a point of civic pride, and towns vied to outdo each other in the glory of their churches. Money for the church was raised by the sale of indulgences, fund raising caravans of relics, parish contributions, and donations from nobles. Many times a guild would pay for a stained glass window depicting their trade. Often people would volunteer their labour to the construction, though much of the work was carried on by skilled workmen under the watchful eye of the head mason and the architect.

Churches were often sited on pre-Christian sites of spiritual importance, taking advantage of peoples' existing devotion to a particular place. Worship was carried on in the same place, just with a Christian orientation. Speaking of orientation, churches are nearly always oriented so that the main altar is at the east end of the church, facing Jerusalem and, not coincidentally, the rising sun. Even if the altar end of the church is not literally in the east, that end is still referred to as the east end. In theory, then, the east end of an English church could face west.

3)Medieval Monasticism

As heroes of medieval Europe, the monks exerted a very powerful influence over all facets of society. The were know to possess outstanding agricultural skills and because Benedict specific that their lives include routine stints of manual labor, they restored a dignity to human labor that the Romans and the barbarians had denied. Furthermore, as managers of large estates they were able to set an example of sound farming practice from which everyone could conceivably benefit.

Over time, powerful medieval families began to construct monasteries on their own estates. Whether their motivations were spiritual or not, it is clear that having a monastery on one's estate was a sure sign of grace. The abbots were frequently related to these powerful families and so it happened that the monastic estates were managed in the interests of these powerful families. In this way, monasteries very quickly became integrated into the power relations of medieval society.

From a cultural perspective, the monasteries housed perhaps the most literate of all members of medieval society. After all, it was assumed that all monks could read and write. Monasteries also contained libraries and scriptoria, or writing rooms, in which manuscripts were copied. These manuscripts were often decorated or illuminated. But why did monks spend so much time and energy illuminating manuscripts. Since their lives were dedicated to the Word and preserving the Word for others, what better way to demonstrate the Word than by giving it the lavish attention it deserved?

The monks became the heroes of early medieval Europe for a number of reasons. They had clearly dedicated their lives to the devotion of God. Their lives served as examples for others. They also provided a sense of security in a world that always seemed on the brink of tumult and catastrophe. They founded an organization, the monastery, which allowed them to live communally - some monks worked the earth, some copied and illuminated manuscripts, while still others read and studied. And, of course, because of their asceticism, the monks became the vehicles of economic and cultural change - they helped teach medieval Europe to save and invest for the future. Of course, what the monks and their monasteries meant for Europe in, say, 800, meant something vastly different more than 700 years later when the Christian humanist, Erasmus, could write of the monks that "they are so detested that it is considered bad luck if one crosses your path."

Medieval Churches and Monasteries

Apart from the manor, the church was the main focus of community life. Church parishes were usually the manor villages.

The parish priest was appointed by the lord of the manor and was given a house. He was obliged to carry money for alms with him, keep up the church, and provide hospitality to travellers.

Priestly Duties. The priest was usually a commoner by birth, though serfs were tied to the land and were not allowed to become priests. The priest officiated at church services, weddings, baptisms, funerals, and visited the ill. He earned his living from the income for parish lands, fees for services, and tithe money.

Tithing. Tithing was a system whereby each person was expected to give 1/10 of their earnings to support the church. The tithe income was divided up evenly between the parish priest, the church maintenance fund, the poor, and the bishop.

Uses of the Church. The chancel (where the altar is) belonged to the lord. The nave and the tower belonged to the people of the parish. Manor courts were often held in the nave, and tenants came there to pay their rent, or scot. A free meal was given to those who paid their scot, hence our term, "scot free".

The church tower occasionally served double duty as the priest's residence and often was built to be defended in times of trouble. School was held in the church porch or in a room over it. The church's role went far beyond religion; it was the centre of village community life.

Gifts of barley to the church were common. The church reeve would hare the barley brewed into ale and sold to raise money for the upkeep of the church. The term "church ale" is still used today to describe fund-raising for the church.

Church Services and Plays. Originally, people stood in the nave to hear the church service. Pews were not introduced until the 15th century. Because few could read, Biblical stories were often acted out for the congregation in the form of miracle plays. These plays evolved into cycles or collections, beginning with the Creation and ending with the Last Judgement.

The plays were performed in the churchyard or porch. In the 15th century morality plays appeared, in which moral ideas combatted (e.g. Virtue vs. Vice).

Church Markets. In the 12th and 13th centuries markets were often held in the churchyard, though this practice was officially banned in 1285. A special hut, or Tolbooth, housed a court which regulated the affairs of the market. In time the Tolbooth became a permanent fixture of the Town Hall.

Monasteries. Monasteries were the other main form of church presence. They were self-contained enclaves where monks or nuns chose to live a simple life of prayer and work. At least that was the theory. In practice monks at least were often criticized for their laxity and concern with worldly affairs.

The first monasteries adhered to the Benedictine Rule, established by St. Benedict in the 6th century. In the early 12th century the Cistercians, under St.Bernard of Clairvaux, advocated a return to simplicity and a rededication to simplicity in monastic life and in the architecture of the church buildings themselves. Cistercian monasteries were established in remote areas to emphasize this ideal. Today they are the among the most interesting and evocative ruins of the Middle Ages.

Monks and Books. At Gloucester Cathedral, which was originally a Benedictine monastery church, can be seen the carrells, or individual study nooks, built into the cloister. There the monks would study their precious books. As the numbers of books increased with the advent of the printing press, special library rooms were built, usually over the cloister walk. These were long narrow halls with booths for reading set at right angles to frequent windows. Books were chained to the desks for safety.

Friars. Friars first appeared in the 13th century. They were clergy not attached to any particular parish, and indeed had no visible means of support. They rejected the monastic ideal of seclusion, and went to live among townspeople and survived by begging. These mendicant friars were enormously popular, much more so than priests or monks, who were often seen as rich and indolent. The main orders of mendicant friars were the Dominicans and the Franciscans.

4)Medieval Schools & Universities

Education. There were many different kinds of schools in medieval England, though few children received their sometimes dubious benefit. There were small, informal schools held in the parish church, song schools at cathedrals, almonry schools attached to monasteries, chantry schools, guild schools, preparatory grammar schools, and full grammar schools. The curriculum of theses schools was limited to basics such as learning the alphabet, psalters, and religious rites and lessons such as the Ten Commandments and the Seven Deadly Sins. The grammar schools added to this Latin grammar, composition, and translation.

Schools. In addition to the schools listed above there were also privately endowed schools like Winchester and Eton. The most famous public school, Eton, was founded by Henry VI in 1440.

The term "public school" can be misleading. It refers to the fact that the school drew its students from all over the country rather than just the local area. In reality "public schools" are anything but public. They were, and still are, elite boarding schools for the rich or ambitious.

School Life. Most schools had no books and the students were taught by rote and the skill of individual masters. Most masters were minor clergy, who themselves were often indifferently educated. Classes at some of the larger schools could be as large as 100 or more boys (no girls, though they were accepted at some of the small local schools), and the school day lasted as long as 13 hours with breaks for meals. And to top it off students could expect to be beaten regularly with a birch rod.

Oxford University. Legend has it that Oxford University was founded by King Alfred in 872. A more likely scenario is that it grew out of efforts begun by Alfred to encourage education and establish schools throughout his territory. There may have been a grammar school there in the 9th century. A grammar school was exactly what it sounds like; a place for teaching Latin grammar. The University as we know it actually began in the 12th century as gatherings of students around popular masters. The university consisted of people, not buildings. The buildings came later as a recognition of something that already existed. In a way, Oxford was never founded; it grew. Cambridge University was founded by students fleeing from Oxford after one of the many episodes of violence between the university and the town of Oxford.

Students. University students chose their own course of studies, hired their own professors, and picked their own hours of study. They were free to leave one professor if they tired of him, and join another, attending several lectures before deciding whether to pay him or not. The only books were the professors, and students wrote notes on parchment or, more commonly, on wax tablets.

5)Medieval England - daily life in medieval towns

A new class emerged during the Middle Ages; the merchant. The growth of trade and the merchant middle class went hand in hand with the growth in towns. Town populations swelled during this period, particularly after the Black Death. Trade routes grew, though roads remained poor and dangerous, so most goods were transported by water.

Towns were built on trade, and the elite of towns were the merchants. Merchant guilds controlled town government, though they often clashed with craft guilds for power. Merchants needed stability for trade, so they supported the king and the establishment of a strong central government against the rule of individual nobles. The king, for his part, encouraged the growth of towns and trade. Town charters became a major source of royal revenue. Eventually the growth of towns and guilds led to the breakdown of the manor-centred feudal society.

Guilds controlled the trade in a town. Merchant guilds regulated prices, quality, weights and measures, and business practices. The power of the guilds was absolute in their domain, and to be expelled from a guild made it impossible to earn a living. Each guild had a patron saint, celebrated religious festivals together, put on religious plays, and looked after the health and welfare of the members and their families.

Separate from the merchant guilds were the craft guilds, which regulated the quality, working hours and conditions of its members. There were three levels of craftsmen; masters, journeymen, and apprentices. Parents paid a fee to place a boy with a master craftsman as an apprentice. There he received food, lodging (often sleeping under the counter in the shop itself), clothes, and instruction in the craft.

. The period of apprenticeship lasted for 2-7 years, after which time the apprentice became a journeyman. The term has nothing to do with traveling; it comes from the French "journee", (day), and meant that the journeyman was paid by the day for his work. After several years as a journeyman the craftsman would submit a piece of his best work to the guild for approval. If this "master-piece" was accepted he could become a master craftsman and own his own shop.

All townsmen were free, and this provided some incentive for serfs to run away to the towns. If they could remain there for a year and a day they were considered free and could not be compelled to return to the manor.

Before Edward I all repairs to streets were the responsibility of adjacent householders. After Edward's time town councils began to take over more responsibility. New roadways were often built directly on top of the old with little attempt to clear it away. Thus repairs never lasted long. There was also the possibility that a citizen would build his section higher than his neighbour. Because of this practice street levels rose and rose. In London the original Roman roads are buried up to 20 feet beneath the street level of today.

Roads were narrow, and tradesmen and householders were constantly encroaching on them. Traffic moved slowly, not least because tolls at the town gates were often paid in kind (that is, with goods rather than money), causing delays and long lineups.

Sanitation was a constant concern. Open drain channels ran along the sides or down the centre of streets. Many stables opened out onto the streets and muck heaps encroached on passage. People often threw dirty water out of windows in the general direction of the drains. Dyers vats were particularly noxious when they were emptied into the street. Again the onus was on the individual householder to keep the space in front of his house relatively clean. In practice the only real incentive to do so was an outbreak of the plague or a visit of the King.

Pigs were another nuisance in the streets. Most people kept pigs. They were cheap, and a good source of food. However, houses were small and gardens even smaller, so pigs were often let out into the streets to forage. Stray pigs were such a nuisance that they were liable to be killed and the owner charged for the return of the dead animal.

Law and order in the town was enforced by the beadle or constables, who could call on citizens to form a night Watch. If a "hue and cry" was raised to chase a criminal all citizens had to join in or risk being fined. The penalty for the criminal was much higher. A thief found in possession of stolen goods was hanged.

If a fugitive managed to reach a church they could claim the right of sanctuary there for a period of 40 days. This meant that someone would have to stand watch outside the church for the entire time to ensure that the fugitive did not escape, a duty that no one wanted. Towns could even be fined if the felon escaped. At any one time in the Middle Ages it has been estimated that there were as many as 1000 people in sanctuary throughout England.

The Curfew Bell. Curfews were imposed in towns to keep the peace. Originally the "curfew bell" was rung at 8 or 9 o'clock in the evening to indicate that it was time for smiths, brewers, and taverners to cease their working day. It became the custom that anyone abroad after that had to carry a light and have a good excuse for being out. The carrying of weapons was carefully regulated, especially where foreigners were concerned. Nobility, as usual, were exempt from these regulations. There were also laws prohibiting the wearing of masks in the street; this after an attempt on the life of Henry IV by some nobles disguised as Christmas mummers[5].

Fire was the constant fear of town dwellers. Due to closely packed wooden houses and inadequate water supply, fires were difficult to control and could produce widespread damage. There were other factors that increased the risks of fire; Beds were of straw and were commonly kept close to open hearths for warmth. Roofs of reeds, rushes and straw were common. It was only after 1213 that these materials were forbidden in London in favour of tile and shingles. Other places were slow to follow London's lead.

Although stone building was encouraged, expense meant that most houses were built of wood up until Tudor times. Then, the flourishing new brick industry and a rapidly falling timber supply swung the tide away from wood as the material of choice for most domestic building. Cooks, barbers, and brewers were heavily regulated because of the risk their fires posed. Their premises had to be whitewashed and plastered inside and out.

Each householder was required to keep a full vessel of water outside his door in summer, due to fire risk. When fires did occur it was every citizen's duty to come running with whatever equipment they had. Often firehooks were used to haul burning thatch off a roof, and also to pull down adjacent buildings to provide a firebreak.

The Town Day. The day officially began with the ringing of the Angelus bell at 4 or 5 o,clock. It announced the first mass of the day and the end of the night watchman's duty. Most shops opened at 6 AM, providing plenty of early morning shopping before the first meal of the day at 9 or 10 AM.

Market Hours. Morning was the active time for markets. Things quieted down after noon, and most shops closed at 3 o'clock. Some kept open until light faded, and others, such as the barbers and blacksmiths, were open until the curfew bell sounded. Foreign merchants were heavily regulated. They had to wait two or more hours before they could enter the market, giving the locals the best of the business.

Markets were noisy, raucous affairs. Merchants had to "cry the wares" as their only means of advertising, and some had to be fined for forcibly grabbing hold of passers-by in their enthusiasm to make a sale.

Saturday was early closing day for shops. Usually noon was the close of business. Sunday, however, the "Lord's day of rest", was not kept as restful as we might think. Some trades were allowed to work after Mass, and some field work was allowed to be done before it. A few places even had the privilege of Sunday markets.

Bells and Criers. Bells were the main medium of telling time and making announcements. A Common Bell was rung to summon civic meetings, courts, and as an alarm in case of fire or attack. The town crier rang a hand bell when he walked throughout the town declaiming news and proclamations. The criers were the main source of news for town dwellers. They also had the task of ringing their bells to solicit prayers in memory of people who had paid for the privilege.

6)Medieval London

In some ways the medieval history of London can be said to have begun on Christmas Day, 1066, when William the Conqueror was crowned king of England in a ceremony at the newly finished Westminster Abbey, just three months after his victory at the Battle of Hastings.

William granted the citizens of London special privileges, but he also built a castle in the southeast corner of the city to keep them under control. This castle was expanded by later kings until it became the complex we now call the Tower of London.

The Tower acted as royal residence, and it was not until later that it became famous as a prison. During the medieval period it also acted as a royal mint, treasury, and housed the beginnings of a zoo.

In 1097 William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall was to prove the basis of a new Palace of Westminster, the prime royal residence throughout the Middle Ages. On William's death his brother Henry needed the support of London merchants to maintain his dubious grip on the throne. In exchange, Henry I gave city merchants the right to levy taxes and elect a sheriff.

By the early 12th century the population of London was about 18,000 (compare this to the 45,000 estimated at the height of Roman Britain). In 1123 St. Bartholomew's Priory was founded in the city, and other monastic houses quickly followed.

At one point in the medieval period there were 13 monasteries in the city. Today, these houses are remembered only by the names they gave to their area, such as Greyfriars, Whitefriars, and Blackfriars.

The city played a role in the outcome of the struggle between Stephen and Maud for the crown in the 12th century. Although they initially supported Maud, her arrogant behavior when she occupied Westminster so angered the citizens that they rose in revolt and Maud was forced to flee London.

In 1176 the first stone London Bridge was built, mere yards from the original Roman bridge across the Thames. This bridge was to remain the only one in London until 1739. Because the passage across this one bridge was narrow and clogged with traffic, it was much quicker and easier for travelers to hire waterboatmen to row them across the river, or transport them up or down river.

In 1191 Richard I acknowledged the right of London to self-government, and the following year saw the election of the first Mayor. This right was confirmed by later monarchs.

In 1245 Henry III began his lifetime work of rebuilding Westminster Abbey, which was reconsecrated in 1269. The other major building project of the medieval period was Old St. Paul's. The cathedral was finished in 1280.

In 1381 the city was invaded by peasant's during the Wat Tyler's Peasant's Revolt. Although the major complaints of the peasants were aimed at the advisors of Richard II, they took advantage of their occupation of London to loot houses within the city. The Lord Mayor, William Walworth, stabbed Wat Tyler to death in a confrontation at Smithfield.

The London merchants supported Edward IV in his grab for the throne in 1461. In gratitude Edward knighted many of the merchants. A few years later in 1477 William Caxton made history when he printed the first book on his new printing press near Westminster.

Medieval London was a maze of twisting streets and lanes. Most of the houses were half-timbered, or wattle and daub, whitewashed with lime. The threat of fire was constant, and laws were passed to make sure that all householders had fire-fighting equipment on hand. A 13th century law required new houses to use slate for roofing rather than the more risky straw, but this seems to have been ignored.

The government of the city was by a Lord Mayor and council elected from the ranks of the merchant guilds. These guilds effectively ran the city and controlled commerce. Each guild had its own hall and their own coat of arms, but there was also the Guildhall (1411-40) where representatives of the various guilds met in common.

Many of the streets in the city were named after the particular trade which practiced there. For example, Threadneedle Street was the tailor's district, Bread Street had bakeries, and on Milk Street cows were kept for milking. There was also a very active livestock market at Smithfield.

Plague was a constant threat, particularly because sanitation was so rudimentary. London was subject to no less than 16 outbreaks of the plague between 1348 and the Great Plague of 1665.

The prime real estate in London was the Strand, where many rich landowners built homes. Lawyers settled at the Temple and along Fleet Street. The Fleet River (which was called the Holborn) was navigable by boats, and docks were set up at what is now Farringdon Street. The Fleet River was covered over in the 18th century.

Part II

1)Web Exercises

2)Ordering events

Put the following events in chronological order:

The Battle of Crecy

The Peasant’s Revolt

The English conquest of Wales

Simon de Montfort’s Parliament

The Battle of Bannockburn

3)Timeline exercise

Draw a timeline of English history between 1215 and 1453.

Place on it what you think are the key events of English history.

There is no “correct” list, but pupils may be asked to give reasons for including or excluding events.

[Possible list might be:

Simon de Montfort’s Parliament, Edward I’s conquest of Wales, Edward I’s invasion of Scotland, The Battle of Bannockburn, The Battle of Crecy, The Black Death, The Peasants’ Revolt, Owain Glyndwr’s Revolt, The Battle of Agincourt, The Expulsion from France.]

4) Famous Battles

Look at the Battles of Bannockburn, Crecy, and Agincourt.

What short-term results did each battle have?

What enduring results did each battle have?

Which of these battles, do you think, has the most significance for England and her neighbours in the present day, do you think?

5) How could William secure control of England?
PAIRs/GROUPs: Give pupils cards with all the problems he faced. Pupils sort problems into ones he should deal with immediately. Order/Prioritise. Discussion. Can you think of solution to William's problems?


6)Role-play

How did the feudal system work? Divide the class into Knights, Bishops, Barons, and Villeins. Teacher plays the King. Give the group’s role cards with information on. Pupils must role-play. What does each get? What must they give and to whom? Can use props….to show the handing over of money, food etc….
Culminate in each bowing to the other, showing deference/obedience to KING. The pupils all bow to King.

7) How to Defend a Castle

STARTER: Odd One Out: on methods of attacking and defending castles.

PUPIL ACTIVITY
1. Pair work. Distribute envelopes containing sorting cards. Pupils must sort cards in pairs choosing own categories. (5 mins).
2. Teacher: Proactive approach
3. Stop class: ask how they sorted cards.
4. Ask pairs to find anachronisms and sort list. (3 mins) CHECK
5. Pupils told: ‘you are under attack sort a list of tactics to defend. (5 mins) must agree CHECK
6. Pupils told to make a list of good and bad defence. Discuss & Justify in pairs (5 mins) must agree CHECK
7. Pupils told: ‘if you are building a Norman castle from scratch choose 10 cards you would include – think about defence. (6 mins) Proactive. CHECK
8. Stop. Each pair feed back to teacher who draws castle on board. Then groups must comment and make suggestions on improvements. (25 mins)

PLENARY: - Pupils reflect on own learning process:
How did you sort and organise your information?
What would do differently next time?
What have you learned about defending castles?
How do we defend our homes today? (10 mins)


RESOURCES: Sorting cards in envelopes, pens, paper

Cards...

Build a moat filled with water
Wooden Motte and Bailey Castle
Stone Keep
Battlements
Well
Storerooms filled with food
Tall narrow windows
Build on the coast with nice views
Thick stone walls
Outer wall with battlements
Wall walk
Tower
Spiral, stone staircase
Build on a high hill or motte
Gatehouse with towers, drawbridge and portcullis
Plant flowers and bushes against castle walls
Machine guns on the battlements
Wooden fence
Double-glazed windows
Dropping stones from battlements
Pouring oil from the battlements
Thick stone corner buttresses
Make sure the castle is warm
Build a Chapel to pray
An armoury, stables, workshops in Bailey
Soldiers with arrows and spears
High stone walls
Barbed wire fences

When did John become King? 1189 1190 1195 1199

2Who did John fall out with before he became King? His parents His mum and son His dad and brother His uncle and sister

3What did John argue with his nephew, Arthur, about? Food Succession The church Land

4What did the trouble with Arthur lead to? The loss of the French territory His parents' divorce His premature death

5What happened to King John in 1209? He got married He became ruler of Denmark He was excommunicated

6Why did John keep asking for extra taxation? He was the King - he just wanted to He needed money to invade and reconquer France He was trying to build up the English naval defences

7Who rebelled against the King in May 1215? Peasants and lower classes The military Discontented barons

8How did the King react to the rebellion? By June he arranged to meet the barons By July he was in full agreement with the barons He just couldn't be bothered

9What agreement did King John make? The Magna Mappa The Grande Reganda The Magna Carta

10Many people identify huge importance to the Magna Carta, but how important was it in 1215? Hugely important - the foundation of the American constitution Fairly important - it was seen as a necessary implementation of the rights of man It was merely John's way of obtaining peace between him and the rebellious barons

11From the major points of the Magna Carta, what was mentioned about the Church? There was to be freedom of Church land in perpetuity The Church was to be free to make its own appointments The Church would control the country on Sundays

12What clause in the Magna Carta was designed to prevent the nobility from being taxed too heavily? "No more than the normal amounts of money can be collected to run the government, unless the King's feudal tennants give their consent" "No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions... except by the lawful judgement of his peers" "Man shall not live on bread alone, but on every word that the King says - but if the King says tax, then all men shall say No!"

13Why did King John sign the document? He believed it was the right thing to do He was trying to buy time He thought he had to - it was his duty as the monarch of England

14When did King John die? September 1216 October 1216 November 1216 December 1216

15Why was John not a total failure? He remained popular with all sections of society He managed to win back the French territory He was very organised and had some military success

16Why is King John remembered as a failure? His total lack of self-belief He left England in a terrible state and lost territory in France He followed superb Kings who were fair and noble - totally unlike him. This made him hugely unpopular.

Conclusion

n December 1154, the young and vigorous Henry II became king of England following the anarchy and civil war of Stephen's reign.

Stephen had acknowledged Henry, grandson of Henry I of England, as his heir-designate. His eldest son, Eustace, had died in 1153, but his younger son, who might have succeeded, lived on as count of Mortain. Primogeniture was not then established in England.

The Britain of Henry II, and of his sons Richard I and John, was experiencing rapid population growth, clearance of forest for fields, establishment of new towns and outward-looking crusading zeal.

The families of Balliol, Bruce and Wallace, dominant in Scottish medieval history, all derived from French origins.

The country also witnessed the cultural feast of the '12th-century renaissance' in the arts, exemplified by the Winchester Bible of c. 1160, created from the skins of over 300 calves and lavishly decorated with lapis lazuli and gold applied by a team of manuscript illuminators from continental Europe.

Legacies of the Norman invasion of 1066 remained. The aristocracy spoke French until after 1350, so saxon 'ox' and 'swine', for example, came to the table as French boeuf and porc.

North of 'sassenach' (Saxon) England, Normanised lowland Scotland (which shared a common vernacular dialect with England North of the Humber) remained distinct from the Highlands where Gaelic flourished.

The families of Balliol, Bruce and Wallace, dominant in Scottish medieval history, all derived from French origins - a minority overlaying the population of Scots.

Ireland was less dominated by Normans. However, much of the regional indigenous culture survived despite Norman monarchy and aristocracy.

A combination of external factors made England more inward-looking and more dissonant after 1200.

Internationally the crusading ideal was weakening. The Battle of Hattin and the recapture of Jerusalem by Muslims in 1187 were considerable blows to western hopes. Richard I's subsequent failure to recapture the city in his campaign against Saladin was discouraging.

Worse still, the crusading ideal was fractured in 1204 with the siege and capture of Christian Constantinople by a crusading force destined for infidel Egypt, and led by Venetians. Crusading never recovered.

English barons became increasingly conscious of their Englishness, which they declared in anti-foreign attitudes

John's loss of French lands soon after 1200 also made England more inward-looking and frustrated.

Population continued to rise in the 1200s, primogeniture became more established and there were many younger warrior sons looking for lands and glory.

Henry III (1216 - 1272) was not a soldierly king. His half-hearted campaigns in France were unsuccessful in regaining lands lost by his father, John. By the Treaty of Paris (1259) he admitted failure and secured remote Gascony by giving up claims to lands in northern France, including iconic Normandy.

Henry III's reign witnessed many closer links with France, where Louis IX (St Louis) was his brother-in-law.

French culture was echoed in Britain, especially in Gothic architecture. But despite Frenchness of manners and names, English barons became increasingly conscious of their Englishness, which they declared in anti-foreign attitudes which focused on immigrant courtiers.

It is no accident that scholars have dubbed the spare, simple Gothic architecture of the 13th century 'Early English', epitomised by Salisbury Cathedral, largely built between 1220 and 1258.

Crusading continued during the 13th century, indeed Edward I (1272 - 1307) was away crusading when his father died in 1272 and did not return for two years.

Such a smooth transition was a tribute to effective government administration in England. Incredibly, centralised financial record-keeping on the great roll of the exchequer survives unbroken from early in Henry II's reign.

Tributes to growing institutions of English government - and hints of a less dominant monarchy - are prevalent in this period:

Expansionism wasn't the sole preserve of England - Scotland regained the Western Isles.

Richard I's realm was governed successfully in his absence for almost his entire reign; Henry III inherited from his unpopular father as a child of nine, with a regency lasting almost a decade; and the transition of power from Henry III to Edward I, when the latter was absent for two years.

There was a downside to effective financial organisation. The prosperity arising from peasant agriculture, growing urbanism and burgeoning population growth meant England could focus more directly on its near neighbours Wales, Scotland and to a lesser extent Ireland, in the 13th and early 14th centuries.

Wales was partly subdued by Edward I, who put his government's wealth into building the great castles through which he gained control of north Wales. But expansionism wasn't the sole preserve of England. Scotland regained the Western Isles from Scandinavian colonists following the Battle of Largs in 1263.

An opportunity arose for England to become involved at the centre of Scottish politics with the untimely death of Alexander III, who died in a riding accident in 1289.

Edward I was called upon to judge different claimants to the Scottish throne, which he did, and his pre-eminence is displayed in a contemporary manuscript illumination which shows him with Llywelyn, Prince of Wales, and Alexander, King of Scotland, on his right and left respectively.

In the last quarter of the 13th century, English dominance over Ireland, Scotland and Wales was apparently being achieved. But that famous image of Edward I with Scots and Welsh rulers illustrates a high point of English predominance.

From the last quarter of the 13th century, fundamentals underlying the dynamics of development in Britain and Ireland changed.

Population growth slowed down, inflation began to affect wealth and bloody civil war as a way of managing royal power became tempered by embryonic parliamentary developments.

Rebellions in Wales are testament to some Welshmen's continuing struggle for independence.

Henry III's struggle with Simon de Montfort, who the king defeated and killed at Evesham in 1265, exemplifies this.

De Montfort's unofficial 'model parliament' of 1263 and Edward I's official model of 1295 were designed by magnates to curb royal power by increasing representation of counties and boroughs.

Problems with the feudal army also emerged at the 1295 parliament when the earl marshal refused to serve abroad unless the king was present. He was threatened with hanging, but neither served nor was he hanged.

The remainder of the period from 1300 to 1485 is traditionally seen as a disastrous period in English history, which in many ways it was. However, Scotland and Ireland achieved growing independence during this period.

A Scottish highlight in the 'wars of independence' was the victory of Robert the Bruce over Edward II at Bannockburn near Stirling in 1314.

The Avignon papacy recognised an independent anointed Scottish monarchy before Bruce's untimely death in 1329, and the long-term 'auld alliance' with France from 1296 secured Scotland's independence.

Rebellions in Wales, especially that of Owen Glyn Dwr between 1400 and 1409, are testament to some Welshmen's continuing struggle for independence, although their own princes were replaced by English princes of Wales from the time of Edward I.

The long view of the period from 1300 to 1485 suggests climate and demographic change were probably key determinants of developments in Britain and Ireland.

Climatic deterioration began from about 1300, with colder winters and wetter summers. These conditions contributed to the Great European Famine of 1315 - 1322, in which millions perished.

The Black Death was the worst disease in recorded history, killing 50% of the population in a year.

Chronic malnourishment weakened the population, perhaps making people more susceptible to the Black Death, the worst disease in recorded history, which arrived in Europe in 1347 and in England the following year.

The disease killed 50% of the population within a year, but the main effect was that it returned with alarming regularity in 1361, 1374 and regularly thereafter until it disappeared from Britain in about 1670.

The population of Britain and Ireland before the Black Death may have been eight million, of which three-quarters lived in England.

Decline continued until about 1450, when the population was perhaps two or three million, the lowest count during the last millennium. By 1485 the population was beginning to rise again.

Climate change and plague were not the only external factors to affect Britain and Ireland. The Capetian royal dynasty in France, which had produced male heirs since 987 AD, died out in 1328, provoking a succession struggle in which Edward II and his son Edward (III to be) were prime claimants.

These claims lay dormant for several years, as Edward II's French wife Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer invaded England in 1326, imprisoned and murdered Edward II and brought Isabella's son Edward III to the throne in January 1327.

Isabella and Mortimer were effectively in power, but in 1330 Edward III asserted himself, had Mortimer executed, and staked a claim to the throne of France.

Scotland, like England, could function effectively without a king for long periods.

This led to the Hundred Years' War, which lasted from 1337 until the English were defeated and driven from France, except Calais, in 1453.

The war was not without English successes both over France (Crécy in 1346, Poitiers in 1356, Agincourt in 1415) and over the Scots (Neville's Cross in 1346).

Kings of Scotland spent considerable periods in English captivity, such as David II who was in captivity from 1346 - 1357, and James I who spent 18 of his 31 years as king in prison between 1406 and 1424. But by this period Scotland, like England, could function effectively without a king for long periods.

The church and its leading institution, the papacy, like the monarchy so strong in the 12th and early 13th centuries, also became weak and disorganised in the later Middle Ages.

The conflict between Henry II and Archbishop Thomas Becket, who was killed in his cathedral church at Canterbury in 1170 by royal knights, was an early manifestation of church-state struggle in this period.

A more legalistic approach was followed by Edward I, whose Statute of Mortmain in 1279 was designed to prevent the 'dead hand' of the church gaining further gifts of land to add to its already large land-base, thereby enabling land to circulate within lay society, and making land more easily taxable by the crown.

The exile of the papacy from Rome to Avignon from 1305 distanced the English from a papacy seen to be dominated by an increasingly powerful French monarchy. Almost all the Avignon popes and cardinals were French.

In 1378, a schism developed in the church, with rival popes based in Avignon and Rome. Inevitably Christendom split and predictably France and Scotland were on the side of Avignon, and England on that of Rome.

When the Conciliar movement of the early 15th century was established, no fewer than three rival popes had to be deposed by the Council of Constance in 1417, which duly elected a fourth, Martin V.

Royal families were so intermarried that mental instability was passed across the Channel.

Division in the papacy exacerbated growing nationalism in western countries. At the Council of Constance representatives voted by 'nations' as England, France and Germany, and later Spain.

Throughout Europe, bloody civil wars resulted as rival magnates fought for power during this period. In France some magnates, such as the dukes of Burgundy, sided with the English, prolonging the Hundred Years' War.

When the war was over, rival groups of magnates in England fought among themselves. Lancastrians, who had usurped the throne from Richard II in 1399, against Yorkists, whose forebears had a better claim in 1399.

Kings came and went, for example Charles VII in France, who was banned from inheritance by his parents in 1420, and Henry VI, deposed in England during the Wars of the Roses.

Royal families were so intermarried that mental instability was passed across the Channel from Charles VI of France to his grandson Henry VI of England.

Upheavals occurred lower down the social scale following the Black Death and during the wars. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 was one manifestation of this, while Jack Cade's rebellion in 1450 another.

In France, the peasant girl Joan of Arc moved centre stage for two years, advising the heir to the French throne and even leading forces in war from 1429 until 1431, when she was captured and burnt as a heretic and sorcerer by the English.

The topsy-turvy world of late medieval Britain and Ireland did not stabilise abruptly when, as Shakespeare put it, the Tudor Henry VII rescued the crown of England from a bush on Bosworth Field after the defeat of the reigning monarch Richard III in August 1485.

Henry V's giant ship of 1,600 tons was a unique achievement and brought peace to the Channel.

Much of what the Tudors claimed as 'new government' was already in place in Yorkist England.

War against France and Scotland continued, while Ireland remained semi-independent. At the end of the Wars of the Roses at Bosworth in 1485, England actually came under a Welsh dynasty.

Much of the bad press of the 1400s derives from Tudor propaganda. There was, in fact, much to praise in 15th-century Britain.

The deafening clash of arms produced as many heroes as villains. The extraordinary Grace Dieu, Henry V's giant ship of 1,600 tons, not rivalled again until the reign of Charles II and Victory, was a unique achievement and brought peace to the Channel, discouraging invasion.

The renaissance of Chaucer, Gower, Barbour and Dunbar percolated society. Libraries, such as that of Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, were established and the art of biography began.

Universities increased in number and scope. Oxford and Cambridge were joined by Scotland's St Andrews in 1410 and two other Scottish universities by 1500.

Ideals of internationalism faltered, including crusading, the universal church, monasticism. Nationalism triumphed. Royalty in many respects were as disreputable at the beginning of the period as at the end.

War and depopulation allowed women to contribute much more effectively and influentially to society.

Throughout England much that we recognise today was established and survives: the parish churches with their towers, now fossilised in their late medieval form by the Reformation; oak-framed timber buildings scattered across the country; universities and schools.

Ireland, Scotland and Wales all enjoy similar cultural characteristics. Maybe it was the wars of the period that led the Scots to place their faith in education with their several universities and the Welsh and Irish to develop their bardic and oral traditions during a turbulent but heroic period of British and Irish history.

And what of the ordinary people? In 1485 over 95% of the people of Britain lived in the countryside, towns despite their small share of national populations had an impact far outweighing their demographic significance.

The period between the Black Death of 1348 and 1485 was, among much else, a golden age for women. War and depopulation allowed them to contribute much more effectively and influentially to society.

But the cold wind of climate change, disease and war was by no means to everyone's disadvantage.

6

[1] http://www.the-orb.net/textbooks/muhlberger/britintro.html

[2] http://medievalstudies.uwaterloo.ca/about_ms_welcome.htm

[3] The Times, 24 May 1994. It is worth quoting the riposte by Lord Jenkins of Hillhead, who rightly took exception to ‘some rather curious history’: ‘I’m not sure many parts of the United Kingdom regard their monarchy as being descended from Wessex, nor that it is very natural to cite our two seven-hundred-year-old universities, together with our languages, as being worthy signs of our ancient separateness and ancient insularity…For a substantial number of centuries, the universities operated almost exclusively, not in the indigenous language, but in one which attempted a European universality’ (The Independent, 26 May 1994). For Britain as an ‘invented nation’, see P. Scott, Knowledge and Nation (Edinburgh, 1990), p. 168.

[4] M. Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (London, 1993), p. 753.

[5] http://www.britainexpress.com/History/Richard_II_to_Henry_V.htm#Henry_IV