Oratotical style

                            INTRODUCTION 

       Stylistics, sometimes called l i n g и o-stylistics, is a branch of general linguistics. It has now been more or less definitely outlined. It deals mainly with two interdependent tasks:

       a) the investigation of the inventory of special language media which by their ontological features secure the desirable effect of the utterance

        b) certain types of texts (discourse) which due to the choice and arrangement of language means are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication. The two objectives of stylistics are clearly discernible as two separate fields of investigation. The inventory of special language media can be analyzed and their ontological features revealed if presented in a system in which the correlation between the media becomes evident.

       Stylistics is the study of varieties of language whose properties position that language in context, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language. A variety, in this sense, is a situationally distinctive use of language. For example, the language of advertising, politics, religion, individual authors, etc., or the language of a period in time, all are used distinctively and belong in a particular situation. In other words, they all have ‘place’ or are said to use a particular 'style'.

       Stylistics is a branch of linguistics, which deals with the study of varieties of language, its properties, principles behind choice, dialogue, accent, length, and register.

       Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.

       Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people’s dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc.

       Many linguists do not like the term ‘stylistics’. The word ‘style’, itself, has several connotations that make it difficult for the term to be defined accurately. However, in Linguistic Criticism, Roger Fowler makes the point that, in non-theoretical usage, the word stylistics makes sense and is useful in referring to an enormous range of literary contexts, such as John Milton’s ‘grand style’, the ‘prose style’ of Henry James, the ‘epic’ and ‘ballad style’ of classical Greek literature, etc. (Fowler. 1996, 185). In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language. Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‘going on’ within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of language reveals. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

             I LINGUISTIC STYLISTICS.

BASIC CATEGORIES OF STYLE ANALYSIS.

       I.1 Stylistics  as a  Linguistic Science.

       The object of style studies: expressive functions and expressive means of different language levels, their stylistic meanings and connotations, communicative laws of discourse (speech peculiarities of the text or a certain type of texts).

        Tasks: analysis of  the evolution of styles in connection with the history of  literary standard, investigation into the language of fiction and its  development, universal laws of  literary composition (including poetics), genres of communication (pragmatic approach).

       Linguistic ‘Stylistics’   in different scholastic interpretations (due to divergence of approaches and complex nature of the object of study):

       Descriptive stylistics as the study of units larger than a sentence, i.e. the arrangement of sentences, their grouping in paragraphs¹;

       Text Stylistics – close to text grammar, structural study of regularities in text composition² contrasted to the functional concept of stylistic variation, i.e. the author’s free choice of the ways and forms of text composition;

       Linguistic Stylistics (in the narrow meaning), presented by:

        a) The functional theory of the Prague Linguistic Circle, pointing out the correlation between textual and non-textual (universal linguistic, “coding” etc.)  Language subsystems defined as “communicative,” “functional” styles (close to socio-linguistic approaches);

         b)  Ch. Balli’s  doctrine of  functional choice postulating  that  language registers many synonymous forms and rows of  synonyms constituted  by one neutral unit   and the rest marked by additional stylistic connotations (expressive,  low colloquial and familiar or elevated,  bookish, high);

       Pragmatic stylistics as universal theory of language in use³, in accordance with the general tendency in linguistics in the 1950-s to investigate” language in use”⁴;

       Poetics viewed as investigation into the national language in connection with the language of fiction⁵; as “a historic science integrated with literary criticism”⁶ which studies the interaction of the literary language and different styles of literature. The central statement of V.V.Vinogradov’s theory proves that the styles of realism could evolve only on the basis of developed national standard, the literary Russian language of the 19^th century, in particular.

       Ideostylistics (stylistics of individual speech) as investigation of the author’s style or the style of a literary work. Stylistics of decoding and stylistics of perception as the analysis of problems of text interpreting. The analysis of linguistic representation of the author’s image in fiction as one of the central problems.

       Linguostylistics as comparison of the national standard and the system of the language with functional styles and dialects, investigation of the elements of language into their potential to express and provoke emotions, additional associations and evaluation⁷.

       Problems of Linguostylistics: 1) definition of style and functional style;

                                                      2) ascertaining functional regularities for the units of different language levels, their stylistic meanings and connotations⁸. 

       Text Stylistics as a field (aspect) of linguostylistic research of the structural-semantic organization of the text (a group of texts); its compositional-stylistic types and forms, constructive and stylistic devices, functions of textual and before-textual systems of units, their role in the construction and expression of contents of the text, its stylistic peculiarities⁹, i.e. the study of the functions, style peculiarities of types and units of the text¹⁰. Text stylistics as research of a virtual text and text typology.

       Peculiarities of Text Stylistics: research of textual units; study of the virtual texts; analysis of the contents of the text.

       Text interpretation as a linguistic discipline investigating:

        1) actualization of language means of different  levels of language hierarchy, i.e. the horizontal, level  structure of the text;

        2) ways of actualizing textual categories – the category of limitation, coherence: (formal integrity) and cohesion (integrity of contents), the category of retrospect and prospect, chronotop (local – temporal reference), anthropocentricity, information, systematization, integrity (completeness), modality, pragmatic orientation (disposition), a level of the text,

        3) vertical, ‘penetrating’ structure of the text: types of presentation¹¹.

         Peculiarities of Functional Stylistics: research of before-textual units; study of text typology; no emphasis on the contents in the analysis of speech typology 
 

       I.2 Stylistics of language and stylistics of speech¹².

       Stylistics of language as research of language subsystems with their specific word-stock, phraseology and syntax, analysis of expressive, emotional and evaluative potential of various language means.

       Stylistics of speech as research of texts, ways and forms of expressing some contents in them according to grammatical and stylistic norms and on the basis of meaningful deviations¹³.

       Literary stylistics as a branch of literary criticism, studying language potential in imaginative reflection of reality in fiction.

       Theoretical stylistics as research of the speech act and text, built up of three parts, correlated with the speech act components:

       Author’s Stylistics (genetic stylistics), research of the author's choice of speech forms, the author’s message and its realization.

       Immanent stylistics as research of the inner construction of the text, realization of the laws of the given speech genre.

       Stylistics of the addressee (stylistics of perception) as investigation of the addressee’s interpretation of the author’s message, as well as the “image of the addressee” or “the addressee factor” itself.

       Practical stylistics as the basis of teaching the norms of a native or foreign language. Tasks of practical stylistics: development of style perception, introduction into the norms of functional styles, the formation of the skill of designing a coherent text according to its functional and language peculiarities.

       General stylistics as a discipline, investigating universal laws: stylistic resources and universal laws of language functioning as a whole.

        Stylistics of particular languages as a research of regularities characteristic of English, German, Russian, etc. or a group of related languages (Germanic languages, Slavic languages, Turkic languages and etc.).

       Comparative stylistics as the  study of stylistic resources and functional regularities of the language on the basis of comparison of related languages. Synchronic and diachronic stylistics. Synchronic and diachronic principles of the stylistic description.

       Historical or diachronic  stylistics as  investigation into the processes of functional styles formation and other speech forms in connection with the social order and changing extra-linguistic factors of style formation, historic development of stylistic language systems. 
 
 
 

       I.3 The Main Trends in  the History of Stylistic Investigation.

       Modern scientific paradigms: stylistics and hermeneutics. Hermeneutics (from Greek hermeneutikos - explaining, interpreting), a philosophical discipline,  Bible interpretation up to the XIX  century, and then represented as a scientific method of “spiritual” sciences, asserting the  principle of plurality in interpreting verity in contrast to strict determinism. Stylistics of decoding as a theoretical informational approach to stylistic problems, a science studying those aspects of the utterance¹⁴. Concept of  information (the inner contents of the process of reflecting the  features of one object as  causing  change in the  properties of the other). Regular and chaotic reflection. Analogy of art creativity and perception with  cybernetic processes. Cybernetics as a science studying control (regulation) systems. Aesthetic values as regulation systems. Imaginative-cognitive function of aesthetic values as regulation (control) of perception. Coding as reflection of the  condition of one physical system with the help of the other. A code as a set of meaningful units and rules of their arrangement intended for  sending messages. A message as a set of reflected, fixed at some  period of time properties of the  source of information. A signal as a temporary process reflecting the message ( in  language communication an integrative complex of phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactic means). Volume disproportion of the impact of  a signal and its energy. The  system of information transmission ( in stylistics "the author – the reader model"):

       1) the source of  information ( the sender) creating the message or a sequence of messages to be received by the addressee;

        2) the transmitter, transforming the message into signals appropriate to the characteristics of the channel;

       3) the channel as  media for signal transmission from the transmitter to the receiver ( ideal channels and  “noise” channels);

        4) the receiver which is carrying out operations, opposite to operations performed by the  transmitter, restoring the message by way of deciphering the  signals;

       5) addressee as a person, for whom the message is intended. The formula of Shannon to calculate the volume of  information. The alphabet of the message  as the list of all possible messages. The volume of information in terms of uncertainty, entropy, degree informational demand the addressee of the information has. Entropy of the system Relevance of Shannon’s formula for stylistics. Predictability \ unpredictability textual elements, increase of choice as the law of text organization in fiction. The opportunity of meaningful deviation in fiction. Predictability as the basis of expressiveness. Stylistics of decoding as interpretation of correctness of comprehension, absence of distortions in decoding. Synthesis is the unity of parts and the whole as a basis of the stylistic analysis¹⁵.  
 
 
 

       I.4   The object and purpose of stylistics.  
 
          Depending on the scope of the language, the content of expressions, situations and purposes of communication distinguish several functional-style varieties or styles, characterized by a certain system of selecting and organizing in their language means. The study of functional styles, especially the use of these linguistic resources involved style. The study of functional styles, especially the use of these linguistic resources involved style.

        
        The object of study of stylistics are units of a language system at all levels in their entirety (sounds, words, their forms, phrases, sentences), i.e. object of the study of stylistics are units of a language system at all levels in their entirety (sounds, words, and their forms, phrases, sentences), is taught "on the entire section of its structure at once"¹⁶.

       In the mid-50's XX century replaced by the so-called traditional style evolved in two directions: the normative (practice style, of speech) and literary (language literature), comes functional, which is based on stylistic study AM Peshkovski, LV replaced by the so-called traditional style, which has developed in two directions:

1. the normative (practice style, culture of speech)

                       2)  literature (language literature), comes functional, which is based on stylistic study A.M. Peshkovski, L.V. Shcherba,  Vinokur, V. Vinogradov.

       Further development of functional stylistics was Vinokur’s and others to the fore, it raises the problem of objective study of the natural functioning of the speech, its different types and varieties. It examines the "dialectic of language in speech"¹⁷. Based on the phonology, pronunciation, grammar and lexicology, stylistics teaches responsible use of their laws, determines how much money the language consistent with its standards meet the objectives and scope of communication, teaches clearly, intelligibly and clearly express the idea, choosing from several homogeneous linguistic units that are close or identical in meaning, but differ in any shades, the most accurate. Speech standards are set at the same time differently for each style and are determined based on the study of verbal material, which implements this style.

        
        Based on the idea of the primacy of content, functional stylistics examines style as a meaningful form. Styles and formed because the language that recognized specific content of each area of communication associated with a specific activity (biosocial, transformative, epistemological, aesthetic, communicative, etc.), and developed in practice are complex forms and functions that serve to express most complete in this area of content.

         Representatives of the traditional style creates a presumption that possession styles is an art to express the same content of different forms. Functional style is basically stylistics of speech, whereas traditionally been predominantly stylistics of language.

       In addition, functional stylistics examines identity as a system of statistics, where divers realized the dialectical law of transition from quantity to quality, and the differences between styles are expressed not only in the presence of different qualitative features, but also in various forms of quantitative quality features in common. Traditional style is explored styles mainly from the qualitative side, and sought to ensure that the description of the style was a list (and as complete as possible) stained items.

            The main objective of the study of stylistics and a description of the functional styles, features and stylistic characteristics of individual linguistic units that combine them (within the overall system of language) in particular, functionally homogeneous subsystems. This determines the basic concepts, which operates style: functional styles and stylistic connotations (stylistic value and style painting).

         II. THE ORATORYCAL STYLISTICS AS A           

                PART OF PUBLICISTIC STYLE.

                      The use of publicistic style. 

       The publicistic style is used in public speeches and printed public works which are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to important social or political events, public problems of cultural or moral character. 

       It falls into three varieties, each having its own distinctive features. Unlike other formal styles, the publicist style has spoken varieties, in particular, the oratorical sub-style. The development of radio and television has brought into being a new spoken variety in the radio and television commentary. The other two are the essay and articles in newspapers, journals and magazines. 

       The general aim of the publicist style is to exert influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay or article not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well. 

       This brain-washing function is most effective in oratory, for here the most powerful instrument of persuasion is brought into play: the human voice. Due to its characteristic combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, the publicistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose or official documents, on the one hand, and that of emotive prose, on the other. It’s coherent and logical syntactic structure, with an expanded system of connectives and its careful paragraphing, makes it similar to scientific prose. Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of words with emotive meaning, the use of imagery and other stylistic devices as in emotive prose. The publicistic style also has some elements of emotionally colored colloquial style as the author has no need to make their speech impersonal (as in scientific or official style), but, on the contrary, he or she tries to approximate the text to lively communication, as though they were talking to people in direct contact.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

       III. TYPICAL FEATURES OA ORATORY

                           AND SPEECHES. 

       The oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. The most obvious purpose of oratory is persuasion, and it requires eloquence. This style is evident in speeches on political and social problems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions as public weddings, funerals and jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law.

       The sphere of application of oratory is confined to appeal to an audience and therefore crucial issues in such spheres as science, art, or business relations are not touched upon.

       Direct contact with the listeners permits the combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. In its leading feature, however, the oratorical style belongs to the written variety of language, though it is modified by the oral form of the utterance and the use of gestures.  

       Certain typical features of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are:

       a) direct address to the audience by special formulas (Ladies and Gentlemen!; My Lords!; Mr. Chairman!; Honorable Members!; Highly esteemed members of the conference!; or, in less formal situation, Dear Friends!; or, with a more passionate coloring, My Friends!). Expressions of direct address can be repeated in the course of the speech and may be expressed differently (Mark you! Mind!). 

       b) Special formulas at the end of the speech to thank the audience for their attention (Thank you very much; Thank you for your time). 

       c) the use of the 1st person pronoun we; 2nd person pronoun you: We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness¹⁸. 

       d) The use of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and others: We’re talking about healing our nation. We’re not talking about politics. We’re all here to do everything in our power to save lives; I’m here to thank you for hearing that call. Actually, I shouldn’t be thanking you, I should be thanking a Higher Power for giving you the call¹⁹. 

       e) Features of colloquial style such as asking the audience questions as the speaker attempts to reach closer contact: Sometimes it is said that man cannot be trusted with the government of himself. Can he, then, be trusted with the government of others? Or have we found angels in the forms of kings to govern him?²⁰, or calling upon the audience: Let us then, with courage and confidence, pursue our own federal and republican principles (ibid). 

       Like the colloquial style, oratory is usually characterized by emotional coloring and connotations, but there is a difference. The emotional coloring of the publicist style is lofty ; it may be solemn, or ironic, but it cannot have the lowered connotations (jocular, rude, vulgar, or slangy) found in colloquial speech. The vocabulary of speeches is usually elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of high-flown style: 

       Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived and so dedicated in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. 
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this²¹. 

       The stylistic devices employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. If the desire of the speaker is to rouse the audience and to keep it in suspense, he will use various traditional stylistic devices. Stylistic devices are closely interwoven and mutually complementary thus building up an intricate pattern. For example, an antithesis is framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while a climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds. 

       But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate; we cannot consecrate; we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be dedicated to the great task remaining before us; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom  and that the government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth²². 

       As the audience rely only on memory, the speaker often resorts to repetition to enable his listeners to follow him and retain the main points of the speech. Repetition is also resorted to in order to persuade the audience, to add weight to the speaker’s opinion. The following extract from the speech of the American Confederate general, A.P. Hill, on the ending of the Civil War in the U.S.A. is an example of anaphoric repetition: 

       It is high time this people had recovered from the passions of war. It is high time that counsel were taken from statesmen, not demagogues:  It is high time the people of the North and South understood each other and adopted means to inspire confidence in each other. 

       A mere repetition of the same idea and in the same linguistic form may bore the audience and destroy the speaker-audience contact, therefore synonymous phrase repetition is used instead, thus filling up the speech with details and embellishing it, as in this excerpt from a speech on Robert Burns:

       For Burns exalted our race, he hallowed Scotland and the Scottish tongue. Before his time we had for a long period been scarcely recognized; we had been falling out of recollection of the world. From the time of the Union of the Crowns, and still more from the legislative union, Scotland had lapsed into obscurity. Except for an occasional riot, or a Jacobite rising, her existence was almost forgotten. (All those different phrases simply repeat the idea that nobody knew us, Scots, before). 

       Repetition can be regarded as the most typical stylistic device of the English oratorical style. Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antithesis, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative. It will be no exaggeration to say that almost all typical syntactical devices can be found in English oratory. Questions are most frequent because they promote closer contact with the audience. The change of intonation breaks the monotony of the intonation pattern and revives the attention of the listeners:

       No? You don’t want to leave the U.N. to the Europeans and Russians? Then let’s stop bellyaching about the U.N., and manipulating our dues, and start taking it seriously for what it is a global forum that spends 95 percent of its energy endorsing the wars and peacekeeping missions that the U.S. wants endorsed, or taking on the thankless humanitarian missions that the U.S. would like done but doesn’t want to do itself. The U.N. actually spends only 5 percent of its time annoying the U.S. Not a bad deal!²³ 

       The desire of the speaker to convince and to rouse his audience results in the use of simile and metaphor, but these are generally traditional ones, as fresh and genuine stylistic devices may divert the attention of the listeners away from the main point of the speech. Besides, unexpected and original images are more difficult to grasp and the process takes time. 

       Absence of exclamatory sentences, break-in-the narrative, other expressively charged constructions.

       Articles demonstrate more syntactical organisation and logical arrangement of sentences. 
 
 

       III.1.    Phonetic features.

       Standard pronunciation, wide use of prosody as a means of conveying the subtle shades of meaning, overtones and emotions. 
 

       III.2.    Morphological features.

       Frequent use of non-finite verb forms, such as gerund, participle, infinitive.

       Use of non-perfect verb forms.

       Omission of articles, link verbs, auxiliaries, pronouns, especially in headlines and news items. 
 

       III.3.     Syntactical features.

       Frequent use of rhetorical questions and interrogatives in oratory speech.

       In headlines: use of impersonal sentences, elliptical constructions, interrogative sentences, infinitive complexes and attributive groups.

       In news items and articles: news items comprise one or two, rarely three, sentences.

       Absence of complex coordination with chain of subordinate clauses and a number of conjunctions.

       Prepositional phrases are used much more than synonymous gerundial phrases.

       III.4.     Lexical features.

       In oratory speech: words of elevated and bookish character, colloquial words and phrases, frequent use of such stylistic devices as metaphor, alliteration, allusion, irony, etc. Use of conventional forms of address and trite phases. Compositio nal features

       Text arrangement is marked by precision, logic and expressive power. Carefully selected vocabulary. Variety of topics.

       Wide use of quotations, direct speech and represented speech.

       In oratory: simplicity of structural expression, clarity of message, argumentative power. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

                                CONCLUSION

       According all what was said above: the oratorical style is one of the important sub-division of the publicistic style.

       Oratorical speech called impact, convincing speech that is addressed to a wide audience, is pronounced a professional speech (speaker), and aims to change the behavior of the audience, her attitudes, beliefs, attitudes, etc.

        Speaking at a meeting, meeting, rally, in the media - a version of oratory. The task of the speaker - to present a certain amount of information, defending their point of view, urging others to its adoption, is convinced he is right, etc. Performances vary in subject, scope, objectives speakers, audiences, for whom they serve.

        This style has it’s  own signals such as  direct address to the audience by special formulas (Ladies and Gentlemen!; My Lords!; Mr. Chairman!; Honorable Members!; Highly esteemed members of the conference!; or, in less formal situation, Dear Friends!; or, with a more passionate coloring, My Friends!); special formulas at the end of the speech to thank the audience for their attention; the use of the 1st person pronoun we, 2nd person pronoun you; the use of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and others ; features of colloquial style such as asking the audience questions as the speaker attempts to reach closer contact, and many others.  
 
 
 
 

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