MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs, unlike other verbs, do not denote actions or states, but only show the

attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination

with which they form compound modal predicates. Thus they may show that the

action (or state, or process) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory,

doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered, etc. Modal

verbs occur only with the infinitive.

There are 12 modal verbs in English. They are: can, may, must, should, ought, shall,

will, would, need, dare, to be, to have (to have got). The latter two are modal only

in one of their meanings.-Ten of them (that is all but to be and to have) are also called

defective or anomalous verbs as'they lack some features characteristic of other verbs,

hat is

1) they do not take -s in the third person singular;

2) they have no verbals, so they have ho analytical forms;

3) they have (except for can and may) only one form and no past tense;

4) they are followed (except for ought) by a bare infinitive (that is by the infinitive

without the particle (o);

5) they need no auxiliary to build up the interrogative and negative forms.

    All modal verbs have 2 negative forms, full and contracted. 

     full form

    may not

    must not

    would not

    should

    need not 
 

Note: The peculiarities of the spelling and pronunciation of some negative forms:

can't [ka:nt] shan't [ia:nt]    , won't [wountj

Сan

This modal verb has two forms: con-tor the present tense and could-for the past tense and for the subjunctive mood.

I can't dance now but I could when I was young. I wish I could go with you.

I. Can followed by the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

1. Physical and mental ability or capacity.

The notion of ability is also expressed by "to be able to".

Mary can speak English quite well but she can't write it at all (can = to be able, to know how to...).

John can keep a secret if he wants to (can = to be capable of).I can drive a car = I know how to...

I couldn't understand him when he spoke very fast (= was unable to, was incapable of...).

The meaning of ability is expressed only by "to be able to" when the reference is to the future, as can, having no infinitive, has no future tense form.

Soon he will be able to speak English quite fluently.

  Note: Can is interchangeable with to be able to when it denotes mere •• capacity. Though in such cases can /could is more usual.

I couldn't was not able to do that new Job; it was too difficult. This man could  was able to cure all diseases.

  But only to be able to is used to express attainment of something, achievement through some capacity. Thus to be able to often combines the idea of "ability" and "achievement". In 'this case was able to means "managed to" or "succeeded in", and could is impossible.

2. Possibility.

a) possibility due to circumstances:

Anybody can make a mistake. Ошибаться может каждый. You can hardly blame him for that. Вряд ли можно его  за это винить.    I couldn't take your coat without paying you for it.

b) possibility due to the existing rules or laws:

In old days a man could be sentenced to death for a small crime. В старые времена  можно было приговорить человека  к смерти за небольшое преступление.

Can is generally used in questions about possibility and in statements about impossibility.

Can this be true? (Is it possible that this is true?) Неужели это правда? This can't be true. (It is impossible that this is true.)

3. Permission.            

Can we go home. Miss? Можно идти домой, мисс?

Не can go now. Теперь он может идти.

     The teacher said we could go home. Учитель разрешил  нам идти домой.

4. Prohibition (it is found only with the negative form of the modal, verb, as prohibition may be understood as the negation of permission-not to be allowed to...). It corresponds to the Russian нельзя, не надо.

You can't cross the street here. Здесь нельзя переходить улицу.

5. Request.

Can you hold on a minute, please?

Can 1 have some water?

II. Can followed by any form of the infinitive may express:

  1. Strong doubt, improbability, incredulity. This meaning occurs only with the negative form of the modal verb.

He can't be working at this time (it's impossible that he is working...). He can't have seen it (it's impossible that he saw it).

It corresponds to the Russian не может быть, чтобы... Could is used instead of can to express greater doubt. Thus the difference between can and could is in the degree of expressiveness, could showing a greater degree of doubt or incredulity. The time-reference is indiсated not by the form of the verb but by that of the infinitive. 

2. Surprise, when can/could is used in questions. It corresponds to the Russian неужели...

Can it be so late as all that? Неужели уже так поздно? То refer the action to the past a perfect infinitive is used.

Note: The Russian negative questions of the type — неужели он не ... can be translated into English in different ways:

a) by complex sentences:

Can it be that you haven't seen him? Неужели вы не видели  его?

b) by different lexical means: 

Can you have failed to see him? Неужели вы не видели его?

Can you dislike the book? Неужели  вам не нравится эта книга?

c) by a statement with the modal word surely:

Surely you've seen him.

  3. Reproach, a suggestion that a person should have done something, behaved in a certain way. This meaning is found only with the form could.

You could at least have met me at the station, couldn't you?

In this sense could is interchangeable with might.

4. Purpose. This meaning occurs only with the form could in clauses of purpose.. May followed by the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

  1. Permission. In this usage it expresses the meaning to have permission to,

You may go now (you are allowed to go).

May we leave this with you? (Are we allowed to...? Aге we permitted to...? Is it all right

if we leave it here?)

The first two variants are formal, the last is informal. Might is used in polite equests

for permission.

Might I use your telephone, please? I wonder if I might borrow your book.

  Can is now more common than may or might to express informally the idea of

  permission, but may is often used when talking of ourselves.

May/might I help you? 

I wrote down the telephone number so that I could remember it. Note some set expressions with the modal verb can:

Cannot/can't help doing smth. - He могу не делать что-то

When I saw him / couldn't help laughing-Когда я увидел его,  я не мог не засмеяться.

Cannot/can't but do smth.- не могу не...

/ cannot but suggest... - Я  не могу не предложить...

It's as ugly as can be.-Это  необычайно уродливо (трудно себе представить что-либо

более отвратительное).

May

This modal verb has two forms: may for the present tense and might for the past. 'The

form might is used:

1. in indirect speech according to the rules of the sequence of tenses (though the verb

could is preferable in this case).

He told me that I might go. The librarian told the man that he might  take the book home.

b) in some syntactical patterns.

. May followed by the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

  1. Permission. In this usage it expresses the meaning to have permission to,

You may go now (you are allowed to go).

May we leave this with you? (Are we allowed to...? Aге we permitted to...? Is it all right

if we leave it here?)

The first two variants are formal, the last is informal. Might is used in polite equests

for permission.

Might I use your telephone, please? I wonder if I might borrow your book.

  Can is now more common than may or might to express informally the idea of

  permission, but may is often used when talking of ourselves.

May/might I help you?

  When the action was permitted and performed the expression was allowed to is preferable.

When translating the story we were allowed to use a dictionary, so I took Galperin's new dictionary.,

2. Possibility of the fact (the so-called "factual possibility"). This meaning occurs only in

affirmative sentences.

to be allowed to, to be permitted to. Tou may find all the books you want in he Lenin

Library. (It is possible that you will find...)

The railways may be improved. (It is possible that the railways will be improved.) 

  "Factual possibility" (may) is "stronger" than "theoretical possibility" (can). Thus the above sentence could suggest that there are definite plans for improvement. May expressing possibility is replaced by can in questions and in negative sentences.

  3. Prohibition (only with the negative form of the modal verb).

You may not go swimming. (You are not allowed to...)—He смей... You may not enter

the room until I say so. - He смей...

The contracted form mayn't is very rare.            •s,

  May is seldom used to express prohibition. There are other ways of expressing this

  II. May (might) followed by any form of the infinitive denotes:

1. Supposition, uncertainty. May in this sense is synonymous /with perhaps or maybe,

and occurs In affirmative, and negative statements.

This news is so strange that you may not believe it. (Perhaps you won't believe it.)                         

He may come or he may not. (Может быть, он придет, а может   She may not know that you are here. (Perhaps she doesn't know that you are here.)

Why hasn't he come? He may have been hurt. (Perhaps he has been hurt. We still don't know whether he has or has not.)The non-perfect infinitive indicates reference to the present or future, that is it expresses a supposition or uncertainty about a present or future action.

They may arrive tonight or tomorrow. 

May(might)in the sense of supposition or uncertainty is not used in questions. Here a supposition, an uncertainty in questions is rendered by: Is it (he)likely? or Do you think...?

Is Mary likely to arrive tonight?

Do you think he has already come?

* Note: The difference between the meaning of the negative forms of can and may:

  He may not be ill.= It is possible that he        He can't be ill. = It is not possible that isn't ill.                              '           he is ill.

  He may not be working. = It is possible        He can't be working. = It is impossible that he isn't working,                          that he is working. .

  Can + negation in these sentences denotes doubt, incredulity on the part of the speaker, whereas may expresses an uncertainty about a negation of some fact.

  2. Reproach. This meaning is found only in positive statements and only with the form might as it is a reproach made about something that has not been done and thus implies some hypothetical wish.

You might at least offer to help.

In combination with the perfect infinitive it renders' irritation (annoyance) that the action was not carried out.

You might have opened the door for me.

     3. May/might partly loses its meaning when used in certain sentence patterns and is in such cases a quasi-subjunctive auxiliary (see § 108):

  a) in clauses of purpose:

Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly. He died so that others might live.

  b) in clauses of concession:

Try as he might he will never be top of his class.

  c) in object, predicative and appositive clauses after verbs or nouns expressing hope, wish, lean                            . 

  2. Reproach. This meaning is found only in positive statements and only with the form might as it is a reproach made about something that has not been done and thus implies some hypothetical wish.

You might at least offer to help.

In combination with the perfect infinitive it renders' irritation (annoyance) that the action was not carried out. 

In combination with the perfect infinitive it renders' irritation (annoyance) that the action was not carried out.

You might have opened the door for me.

     3. May/might partly loses its meaning when used in certain sentence patterns and is in such cases a quasi-subjunctive auxiliary (see § 108):

  a) in clauses of purpose:

Sit here so that I may see your face more clearly. He died so that others might live.

  b) in clauses of concession:

Try as he might he will never be top of his class.

  c) in object, predicative and appositive clauses after verbs or nouns expressing hope, wish, lean                            .

The doctor has fears that she 'may not live muchlonger.   The prisoner had hopes that he might be set free.  

Here are some expressions with the modal verb may I might:

I may/might as well + infinitive-is a very mild and unemphatic way of expressing an intention.

I may as well take you with me.

  Might jast as well means "it would be equally good to" and is used to suggest alternative actions. Though the meaning is basically the same as in (a), "just" makes the sentence more emphatic.

I'll go on Monday by a slow train.

You might just as well wait till Tuesday and go by the fast one.

I'll do it at six.

That's far too late. You might just as well not do it at all.

Must           .

The modal verb must has only one form for the present tense. It may also be used in reported speech, after the verb in the past tense in the principal clause.

I knew I must go there too.             ,

I. Must followed by the indefinite infinitive may express:

  1. Immediate obligation or necessity or an obligation referring to the future. This meaning occurs in positive statements and questions,

We must begin before five or we shan't finish in time for our supper.

2. Prohibition. Such sentences are sometimes negative commands, corresponding to the Russian sentences with нельзя, не разрешается.

The girl mustn't go home alone. It's very late. - Девочке нельзя идти  домой одной.

2. Emphasis. In this case must is not translated into Russian, it merely emphasizes some

action or idea.

Just when we were ready to go away for the holidays, the baby must catch measles. —

Как раз, когда  мы уже уезжали в отпуск, ребенок  вдруг заболел корью, (...возьми да

и заболей...)

Of course after I gave her my advice she must go and do the opposites. — Ну, конечно, 

после того, как  я ей посоветовала, она вдруг пойди и сделай наоборот.

4. Invitations.                                                 

You must come and see me sometime. You must come and have dinner with us. You must come and see our picture gallery.

II. Combined with any form of the infinitive must expresses probability, near certainty. It has the same meaning as the modal words probably, evidently. In this sense must occurs only in positive statements and corresponds to the Russian modal words вероятно, должно быть.

He must be mad (it seems certain that he is mad). He must be lonely (probably he is lonely).

Where's Nell? She must be sightseeing now (she is probably sightseeing).

  Note: With verbs which admit of the continuous aspect, the continuous infinitive should be used for reference to the present.

  John isn't here. He must be working in the garden. Jane is busy. Must combined with the non-perfect infinitive of these verbs expresses obligation (not probability or near certainty).

He must work in the garden. Он должен работать в саду. ' She must pack for the trip. Ей надо собирать вещи в дорогу.

The perfect infinitive indicates a past action.

Did you always live with your father? You must have led quite a busy social life (evidently you led...). The perfect continuous infinitive indicates the duration of the past action, a process in the past

It must have been raining when you left (evidently it was raining when you left).

They must have been working all the time. They look very tired (evidently they have been working all the time).

' Must expressing probability is not used:

  a) with reference to the future. Instead of the modal verb the adverbs probably and evidently are used.

He will probably feel lonely.

b) in negative and interrogative forms. There are several ways of expressing the negative

  probability in such sentences: by negative affixes, or negative pronouns or lexically.

To have to, have got to

  As a modal verb to have to differs from the others in that it is not defective. It can have the category of person and number and all tense-aspect forms, as well as verbals. It is followed by a to-infinitive.

As there is no through train to our town we have to change in Moscow.

We had to look all over town before we found what we wanted.

She won't have to walk the whole way, will she?

Having to go so soon we were afraid of missing the man.

Have to builds up its interrogative and negative forms with the help' of the auxiliary verb to do.

Do you have to work so hard?

  Have to combines only with the non-perfect infinitive.

  The modal verb to have to expresses:

  1. Obligation or necessity arising out of circumstances. It is similar in its meaning to must (1). It corresponds to the Russian приходится; вынужден.

She is usually short of time so she has to go by air (ей приходится лететь, она вынуждена лететь).

My sister has a lot of friends in different parts of the country, so she has to write lots of letters (ей приходится...).

In the past tense have to indicates a fulfilled obligation.

Have got to has the same basic meaning as have to. It is more ' usual in spoken English especially in the negative and interrogative forms. Besides have to usually denotes a habitual action and have got to denotes a particular action (mainly in colloquial style).

Do you have to get up early every morning? Have you got to get up early tomorrow morning?

2. Certainty or logical necessity. Both have to and have got to are possible, the former being more common in American English and the latter in British English.                            

You have to be joking.-Am. English.

The bombing's got to stop sometime-B. English. (It is certain that the bombing will stop sometime.)

To be to

To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past indefinite tenses.

To be to expresses:

  1. An obligation arising out of an arrangement or plan. It is found in statements and questions.

We are to complete this work by tomorrow. (Somebody expects it.)

I am to go down in my car and pick up the parcels.

When is the wedding to be?

The ship was to dock on Sunday.

I was to meet Mother at the dentist's at II.

The last two sentences in which to be is in the past indefinite do not indicate whether the action did or did not take place.

If we are to get there on time, we must start at once (если мы  хотим прийти вовремя, надо сразу отправляться).

6. Possibility. In this case the passive form of the non-perfect infinitive is used, unless it is a question beginning with

the interrogative adverb how.

They are not to be trusted.

Need

   The modal verb need may be either a defective or a regular verb. As a defective verb need has only one form and combines with a bare infinitive. In reported speech it remains unchanged. As a regular verb it has the past indefinite form needed and regular negative and interrogative forms.

Need I do it? You needn't do it just now. .  The teacher said that we needn't come.

There is a slight difference in the usage of regular and irregular forms. The regular form is used mainly when the following infinitive denotes habitual action.

Do I need to show my pass every time? You don't need to say it every time you see him.

The defective form is more common for one particular occasion. Need I show you my pass now?

  The defective form is mainly restricted; to negative and interrogative sentences whereas the regular verb can be used in all types of sentences and is therefore more common.

  Need expresses necessity. It is mainly used in questions and negative statements, where it is a replacement for must or for have got to.

Do you need to work so hard (do you have to work so hard? Have you got to...).                                   .

It corresponds to the Russian нужно.

You needn't do it now. Сейчас  не нужно этого делать. . Need she come tomorrow? Ей нужно завтра приходить? 

The negation is not always combined with the verb, but may be expressed by other parts of the sentence.

Need she go there? (hoping for a negative answer) I wonder if I need go there, (statement of doubt)

In negative statements need followed by a perfect infinitive indicates that the action expressed by the infinitive was performed but was not necessary. It implies a waste of time or effort,, and is therefore translated by зря, незачем, не к чему была.

You needn't have Spent all the money. Now we've got nothing left.—Зря ты потратил  все деньги, не к чему было  тратить. We needn't have waited for her because she never came at all.— Нечего было ее ждать.  Она все равно не пришла.Didn't need to do smth= It wasn't necessary, so probably not done. We didn't need to say anything at all which was a great comfort. She didn't need to open the drawer because it was already open. and these:                                    -      .

Needn't have done smth. = It was not necessary, but done nonetheless. You needn't have said anything. Then he would never have known about it. She needn't have opened the drawer. She found it empty when she did.

Ought to

   The modal verb ought has only one form. It is not changed in reported speech.

  Ought combines with the to-infinitive. When followed by the non-perfect or continuous infinitive it indicates reference to the present or future. In indirect speech it may also refer the action to the past.

I told him that he ought to do it, so he did it. She told him he ought not to go away.

  Ought expresses:1. Moral duty, moral obligation (which is not always fulfilled). It corresponds to the Russian следует.

You ought to look after your children  better (you don't always do it). Вам следует больше заботиться о детях.

Ought not + perfect infinitive means that something wrong has been done and it is now too late to change it. It may also be viewed as a reproach.

She told him he ought not to have done it (but he had done it). The opposite to ought to is needn't used to mean that the action is unnecessary.

We ought to wash the dishes but we needn't dry them because they will dry themselves.

  2. Advisability (which is sometimes understood as desirability);

  You ought to see a doctor. We really ought to buy a new car, 3. Probability, something that can be naturally expected. It corresponds to the Russian должно быть, наверное.

You ought to be hungry by now (you probably are, but I'm not certain). Вы, наверное; уже  проголодались.

Ought to + infinitive is used when describing something exciting, funny or beautiful in the meaning of / wish you could.

You ought to hear the way he plays the piano!

Should

Historically should was the past form of shall and both the forms expressed obligation. But in present-day English they have developed different meanings and are treated as two different verbs.

Should followed by the non-perfect infinitive may be used with reference to the present and future and is not changed in reported speech.

You should be more careful. Вам следует быть внимательнее. I told him he should be more careful.

Should is nearly always interchangeable with ought to, as their meanings coincide.    , It expresses:

  1. Moral obligation or duty which may not be fulfilled. Should is found in this sense in all kinds of sentences.

All students should submit their work by present date (but some of them don't). When combined with the perfect infinitive should denotes criticism, faultfinding, the statement indicates that something desirable has not been done.

Your shoes are wet. You should have stayed at home.

  2. Advice, desirability. This meaning is more common with ought to than with should.

You should stay in bed. Вам нужно (следует) лежать в постели. I think you should read this book. Думаю, что тебе следует (стоит) прочесть эту книгу.

You should consult a doctor. Показался бы ты врачу. (Тебе  следует показаться врачу.)                                   

As is seen from the above examples, it is sometimes difficult to discriminate between the first and the second meaning.

3. Probability, something naturally expected (only with reference to the-present от future).

The effect of the tax should be felt in high prices (will probably be felt).

We needn't get ready yet. The guests shouldn't come for another hour. Гости вряд  ли придут раньше, чем 

через час.

Shall

In present-day English shall is not a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning of obligation

with the function of an auxiliary verb in the future tense.

As a modal verb shall is not translated into Russian, usually its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation.

When combined only with the non-perfect infinitive shall- expresses:

1. Promise or strong intention. In this meaning shall is used with the 2nd or 3rd person with a weak stress.

It shall be done as you wish.

You shall never know a sad moment, Lenny, if I can help it. He shall get his money.  "I want this luggage taken

to my room."     "It shall be taken up at once, sir."—Его сейчас же  отнесут наверх, сэр.

In the 1st person shall in this sense acquires a strong stress. I want that prize and I shall win it.

2. Threat or warning (shall is used in this meaning in the 2nd and 3rd person).

That day shall come.

She shall pay for it, she shall.

3. A suggestion.

It is used in questions (and offers) in the 1st person singular and plural. Such sentences are translated into Russian by the infinitive.

"Shall I get you a chair?" "Yes, please."

  The above three meanings are closely connected with the old meaning of

  obligation which is at present not common in spoken English and which is

  normally confined to formal or archaic style (official regulations or other documents).

The Society's nominating committee shall nominate the person for the office of president (...должны выставить одного кандидата...).

This meaning is found in subordinate clauses.

It has been decided that the nomination shall not be opposed. Will

Will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning

with its functioning as an auxiliary verb expressing futurity. Will has two forms:

will for the present tense and would for the past tense. Thus will and would are

looked upon as forms of the same verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ.

I. Will combined with the non-perfect infinitive expresses:

  1. Willingness, intention, determination. It is often rendered into Russian by непременно, обязательно, охотно.

I will write as soon as I can. (Я непременно напишу, как только  смогу.)

When used in the negative it denotes a refusal to do something.

They won't go with us (they refuse to...).

I won't accept your offer (I refuse to...).

2. A polite request or an offer. This meaning occurs only in questions.

Will you pass the salt, please? Will you have some tea?

In comparison with will -the form would renders a greater degree of politenessIt is still more polite to use the combinations: Would you mind (+ -ing form), Would you be so kind as to...

Would you be so kind as to lend me your book?

3. A command (in military contexts a strict command).

But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation and expresses impatience.

Sit down, will you? . Shut the door, will you? Shut the door, won't you?

Would is never used in this meaning.

3. Insistence, resistence. Will is stressed when used in this sense.He will try to

mend it himself (he insists on mending it himself).

With reference to inanimate objects will and would shows that a thing fails

to perform its function. It occurs in  negative statements and corresponds to

the Russian никак не. 5. Inevitability, or characteristic behaviour, or something naturally expected.

What will be will be,—Чему  быть, того не миновать. Accidents will happen. — 

Несчастные  случаи неизбежны (несчастный случай может  произойти с 

каждым).

6. Characteristic behaviour or quality.

Oil will float on water.

       Children will often be full of life when their parents are tired.

This car will hold six people comfortably.

II. Will/would combined with different forms of the infinitive can express

prediction, a certainty about the present or the future (in a similar way to must),

something that is proved or expected.

This will be just what she wants.—Это, очевидно, то, чего она хочет. That will

be my wife (I know that she is due to phone about this time, and I therefore

conclude that it is her who is phoning now).

Dare