1 Science of Stylistics, its connection with other linguistic sciences

1.1 The definition of stylistics, its object and aims

 

  Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the system of styles of a language, describes norms and ways of using literary language in different situations of communication, in various types and genres of written speech, in different spheres of life.

  The aim of stylistics is to help the reader to get more information from the language means used in speech, to receive aesthetic pleasure while reading. Another aim of this science is to describe certain areas of sub-languages (phonemic, morphological, etc.). Stylistics describes unusual usage of the language elements, specific features which distinguish this sub-language from the others.

  Data of stylistic analysis are used for revealing peculiarities of definite texts or types of texts.

  The subject of stylistics is a language (as the wide notion) which includes both written and oral variations.

  The object of stylistics is the information which is often vague (unclear) for an ordinary reader, so called between-lines information. That is why stylistics is a science which studies connotations.

  Connotations are parts of semantic structure of language units and their groups, which do not have lexical or grammatical meaning. But these parts denote the class to which the units belong: either a definite sub-language (i.e. a style) or its central or neutral part.

  The term ‘style’ is used to describe:

1. aesthetic functions of a language,
2. expressive means of a language,
3. synonymic ways of expressing one and the same idea,
4. emotional colouring of a language,
5. the system of special stylistic devices,
6. division of a language into separate sub-languages, which are called styles,
7. individual manner of an author to use a language

  That is why stylistics studies all these aspects of style.

1. 2 Connection between stylistics and other linguistic sciences. Types of stylistics

 

  A language is divided into levels which consist of their own specific units. Each unit is described by its own science.

 
 

  Stylistics does not describe a definite level of a language. It penetrates into all levels. Thus, stylistics is divided into:

• stylistic phonology,
• stylistic morphology,
• stylistic lexicology,
• stylistic phraseology,
• stylistic syntax.

  General phonetics studies the whole pronunciation system of a language. Stylistic phonetics studies only phonetic features of sub-language, which form the style, for example, variations of pronunciation in different types of speech.

  General morphology studies morphemes and grammatical meanings, which are expressed in a language in general without taking into consideration their stylistic value. Stylistic morphology studies grammatical forms and grammatical meanings which characterize definite sub-languages.

  General lexicology is closely connected with stylistic lexicology. General lexicology often gives stylistic classification of vocabulary and this is a field of stylistic lexicology.

  Etymological analysis (especially the problem of borrowings) is stylistically important if the borrowed words are stylistically loaded.

  General syntax studies a sentence from the point of view of its structure and building of correct utterances in this particular language. Stylistic syntax studies specific constructions which characterize different types of speech.

  Together with form, language units (except phonemes) have meanings. Morphemes, lexemes, phrases and sentences are associated with classes of things, processes, qualities, and relationships. Meanings are investigated and described by semasiology. Stylistic semasiology studies the meanings of morphs, words, word combinations, sentences, which are found in a definite style.

  There is also literature stylistics which is a branch of theory of literature. It studies belles-lettres, poetry, science fiction, etc. from the point of view of problems which are contained in these works, their compositional structure, biography of the author (facts that are relevant for understanding his works), author’s message.

  Some scientists talk about decoding stylistics. Its founder is Michael Riffaterre. This is a science of decoding information which is hidden in the text.

  Historical stylistics deals with variations of certain styles or stylistic colouring of language elements; the history of stylistic system as such; forming and developing of stylistic variations of a language; history of their relationships.

 

2 Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary

 

   Many linguists do not classify vocabulary because it is heterogeneous and includes a large number of words. Some scientists, however, offer classifications. Most of them are based on binary opposition.

   J. M. Skrebnev distinguishes three main levels:

  1. stylistically neutral,

  2. superneutral,

  3. subneutral.

   I. V. Arnold calls these levels:

  1. stylistically unmarked

  2. formal vocabulary

  3. informal vocabulary

   All these classifications can be represented in the form of a table. All words are divided into two main groups: stylistically neutral (their usage is unlimited) and stylistically marked (their usage is limited). The last group is divided into two subgroups: bookish words and colloquial words.

     
 
 
 
 
 

   I.R. Galperin suggests the following scheme of classification.  

     
 

   common

   literary

   vocabulary 
 
 

                                                                     common

                                                                     colloquial vocabulary 
 

   Galperin’s classification of vocabulary 

   He presents the whole vocabulary in the form of three circles. They overlap each other. The biggest central circle is ‘Standard English’. The higher circle is ‘Special literary vocabulary’, the lower circle is ‘Special colloquial vocabulary’. The area where ‘Standard English’ and ‘Special literary vocabulary’ overlap is ‘Common literary vocabulary’. The area where ‘Standard English’ and ‘Special colloquial vocabulary’ overlap is ‘Common colloquial vocabulary’. Special literary vocabulary includes terms, archaic words, neologisms, poetic words and foreignisms. Special colloquial vocabulary includes slang, professionalisms, vulgarisms and cant.

   The words belonging to Standard English are as a rule of Anglo-Saxon origin. They are mostly one-syllabic and have many meanings. The primary meaning belongs to Standard English. These words can be used in any situation of communication. They have nothing special about them; they do not cause any definite associations. (take, child, big) The words belonging to Standard English are emotionally neutral.

   Special literary vocabulary is elevated. It stands above Standard English.

   Archaisms are words which are out of use. Some archaisms denote things which do not exist any more (names of things which have disappeared in the course of history) (yeoman – йомен (крестьянин в Англии 14 – 18 веков, который вел, как правило, самостоятельное хозяйство). The other archaisms have their synonyms which are used nowadays (the word ‘main’ (море, океан) has been replaced by the word ‘ocean’). The use of archaisms creates romantic atmosphere or the atmosphere of the past. Archaic words are emotionally coloured.

   Neologisms are new words, which seem strange at first. Usually, they appear to denote new things and notions. Neologisms are emotionally coloured when they first appear, but when people get used to them they become emotionally neutral. (brandalism - брендализм (завешивание городских фасадов уродливыми рекламными постерами))

   Terms denote things and notions of science (chemistry, mathematics, biology, etc.) (protoplasm, tribasic (трехосновный (о кислоте)), triaxial (трехмерный)). Terms are emotionally neutral.

   Foreign words are mostly late borrowings from French, they have their French pronunciation and spelling. For example, ‘Au revoir’, ‘chic’. These words have their English synonyms. Foreign words are not included into dictionaries of the English language. They are emotionally neutral.

   Special colloquial vocabulary stands below Standard English. Its sphere of use is socially lower than the neutral sphere.

   Professionalisms appear in professional groups for things, phenomena and processes which characterize a certain profession. They are synonyms to official terms of this professional sphere. Jargon words make communication of the representatives of the profession easier. (the expression ‘sewing machine’ is used by soldiers for ‘machine-gun’ пулемет, chopper – «вертушка») Professionalisms are emotionally neutral within the group of people who belong to this profession.

   Cant is a secret language of criminals. It is used for keeping things in secret from ordinary people. These words are ordinary English words with transferred meaning. (crib; flash-house; ken; fencing ken – ‘малина’) Cant is emotionally neutral for the social group of people who use it, but it is emotionally coloured for the rest of the society.

   Slang is the part of the vocabulary which is commonly understood. It is built with the help of metonymy, metaphor, hyperbole, understatement, irony, etc. Slang words are intentional substitutes of neutral and elevated words. (to nail – обнаружить, накрыть, застукать (school slang)) Slang is emotionally coloured.

   Vulgar words denote things which are considered unmentionable in a civilized society. They are emotionally coloured. They are divided into stylistic vulgar words and vulgarisms proper. Stylistic vulgarisms are the words whose lexical meaning does not imply anything indecent, but their usage is inappropriate in certain situations of communication. Old buffer – старый хрыч, idiot – идиот, дурак. Vulgarisms proper are the words which should not be used in civilized society because they denote indecent things, as a rule certain parts of a body.

   Within texts all words of a language may become emotionally coloured even if they belong to Standard English.

   We find such phenomenon in the English language as stylistic synonyms. They exist due to the stylistic stratification of vocabulary. Stylistic synonyms do not differ in meaning. They differ in their stylistic reference; they refer to different groups of the English vocabulary.

   The examples of stylistic synonyms are:

  infant – child – kid (common literary, Standard English, common colloquial)

  to pass away – to die – to kick the bucket (common literary, Standard English, slang)

1. The old man is dead. (stylistically neutral; Standard English)
2. The gentleman well advanced in years attained the termination of his terrestrial existence. (high- 
             flown vocabulary)
3. The old bean kicked the bucket. (low colloquial vocabulary)

3 Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices

 

    Interaction of speech sounds can be expressive means, it emphasizes the idea expressed by words with repeated sounds. Phonetic expressive means are used not only in poetry, but in descriptions in prose as well.

    There are some kinds of phonetic expressive means: alliteration, assonance, sound arrangement, onomatopoeia, rhyme, and rhythm.

    Alliteration is repetition of consonants in several neighbour words (usually, at the beginning).

         last but not least; now or never; forgive and forget

    Assonance is repetition of vowels in stressed syllables in several neighbour words.

"...Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden, I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore — Clasp a rare and radiant maiden, whom the angels name Lenore?" (E. Poe)

(Поведай  горестной душе, скажи, дано ли будет мне прижать к груди, обнять в раю Ленору светлую мою?)

Repetition of the diphthong [ei] creates the atmosphere of hope, this part sounds more optimistic than the rest of the poem.

    Sound arrangement is combination of alliteration and assonance.

    A friend in need is a friend indeed.

    As busy as a bee.

    We find assonance, alliteration and sound arrangement in poems, proverbs, titles of books and newspaper headings.

    Onomatopoeia (sound imitation) is the imitation of the natural sounds, machines, animals. It can be direct (whistle, splash, buzz, cuckoo, hiss) and indirect (This gorgeous gaggle of geese).

    Pun (play on words) is often based on using homonyms (different words which are pronounced in the same way).

    I am on a sea-food diet (the words ‘sea’ and ‘see’ are pronounced identically, that is why we hear ‘see-food diet’) 

    Rhyme is the repetition of similar sounds at the end of lines in poetry.

         flesh – fresh – press (vowel rhyme)

         tale – tool,  treble – trouble (consonant rhyme)

    Rhyme can be male and female. Male rhyme involves repetition of similar sounds in the words ending in stressed syllable. It is a single rhyme. dreams – streams; fight – light. Female rhyme involves repetition of similar sounds in stressed syllables whereas the words end in unstressed syllable. berry – merry; never – feather. It is a double rhyme.

    In perfect rhymes the stressed vowels and all following sounds are identical. might – right; life – wife. In imperfect rhyme not all the sounds are identical. It can be divided into consonant, vowel, and eye-rhyme.

    Consonant rhyme is a rhyme when consonants are repeated in the last words of poetic lines. fresh – press; tale – pull. Assonance rhyme is a rhyme when vowels are repeated in the last words of poetic lines. tale – pain.

    There are so called ‘eye-rhymes’ where the spelling of the words at the end of the lines is similar, but they are read differently. woods – floods; have – gave; love – prove.

    Rhythm is movement characterized by regular repetition of elements.

    It brings order into the utterance. Rhythm demands oppositions of long and short, stressed and unstressed sounds. Rhythm is based on repetition of similar structural units following one another after short intervals.

    The high-sloping roof, of a fine sooty pink was almost Danish, and two ducky little windows looked out of it, giving an impression that very tall servants lived up there.

    (Galsworthy)

    The attributes in pairs are all structurally similar word-combinations and create the rhythm.

4 Graphic expressive means

 

  Printed texts reflect the peculiarities of characters’ speech. For that graphons are widely used.

  Graphon is intentional violation of the spelling of a word (or word combination) used to reflect authentic pronunciation. (V. A. Kukharenko)

  Graphon is unusual, non-standard spelling of a word, which reflects its deviation from Standard English.

  Graphons are used to show the following things.

  1. Individual peculiarities of character’s speech (purely individual mispronunciation of certain sounds):

  Thith ith a bad piech of bithnith.

  2. Most graphons show features of territorial or social dialect of the speaker, his social standing. In many cases they show deviations from Standard English typical of the whole group of English speakers.

  Typical feature is the reproduction of cockney dialect (inhabitants of one of the districts in London). One cockney feature is dropping [h] at the beginning of words. That is why letter ‘h’ is ommited in writing: ‘ave (=have), ‘at (=hat), ‘is (=his).

  In Mark Twain’s works we may see examples of rendering the Missouri Negro dialect:

  ‘It’s a sign dat  you’s agwine to be rich’. 

  3. In very fast and indistinct speech the boundaries between words blend and sounds are swallowed. It can be reflected in writing:

  pleasmeech = pleased to meet you!

  jiver = did you ever

  speaknubout prices = speaking about prices

  Sometimes such changes are standard:

  lemme, gimme, gotta, gonna, coupla, didja, dont’cha

  4. The variants of pronunciation (different representations of the same phoneme) can be shown by graphic means. A speaker may strengthen, emphasize, make more prominent the word when he intensifies its initial consonant. It is shown in the graphon as doubling the letter:

  ‘N-no!’ sounds more decisive, more emphatic than a mere ‘No!’

  Another way of intensifying a word or a phrase, making it more expressive, is scanning, i.e. uttering each syllable as a phonetically independent unit, in retarded tempo. The graphic means of showing this is hyphenated spelling:

  Im-pos-sible!

  Often a word or a word-group is emphatically stressed by the speaker without retardation of the tempo of speech and without dividing it into syllables. This part is marked with specific intonation. The corresponding graphons in print are italics or capitalization:

  She was simply beautiful. I’ll NEVER see him again!

   Sometimes doubled letters or letters repeated three, four or more times are used:

  C-c-c-coming, c-c-c-case (stuttering or hesitation of a speaker)

  Appppeeee Noooyeeeerrrr!

  5. The organization of the text on the page can be a stylistic device in itself. For example the shape of the text in the form of Mouse tail continues a pun (as Mouse is telling its ‘tale’) in ‘Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland’ by Lewis Carroll.

 

5 Morphological Stylistic Devices

 

  A morpheme has two possibilities to render additional information, or connotation:

  1. by interrelating with other morphemes,

  2. by repetition.

  Morpheme is a chief component in word-building. Enriching vocabulary can be done with the help of creating new words from the morphemes that already exist in the language. These neologisms can be adopted in public speech, by all people, as well as be individual, so called occasionalisms.

  toing and froing, unbeautiful

  These are new combinations of the morphemes which exist in the language according to the rules of word-building that are common in this language. What strikes reader’s eye is unusual combination of such morphemes. Reader understands the new word because the model is common. Such neologisms not only define some notion but also refer to the author’s attitude to it.

  Morphemes can take part in a morphemic play. Play of morphemes is like play of words. It renders the author’s attitude to the events or phenomena, which is in most cases ironical or satirical.

  Feminists grumble that history is exactly what it says, - His-story, and not Her-story at all. (Robinson)

  Morpheme repetition is an important means of emphasizing, it becomes means of increasing informational and aesthetic value of the text. Different morphemes can repeat: prefixes, roots, suffixes. Repetition is always aimed at logic or emphatic underlining. It also makes the statement rhythmical.

  There was then a calling over the names, the great work of sealing, stamping, inking, and sanding… (Dickens) – Repetition of the morpheme ‘ing’ underlines process, action which takes place constantly in this room.

6 Lexico-semantic stylistic devices and expressive means

6.1 Figures of replacement

  All kinds of replacement of notion from one (usual) object to another (situational) are called tropes (from Greek ‘tropos’ which means ‘turn’).

  All tropes show coincidence of two semantic fields (that is of two different meanings) in one unit. So, tropos is a language unit which possesses two meanings. These meanings are clear for the speaker. This double meaning creates so called image. Sometimes tropes are called ‘figures of replacement’. They are divided into two groups. 

  

  

6.2 Metaphor and its kinds

 

  a) Metaphor is based on the similarity of two objects and this similarity is not objective, it is subjectively given to an object by human mind.

  Metaphor is expressive renaming on the basis of similarity of two objects: the real object of speech and the one whose name is actually used. But in fact there is no real connection between the two.

  ‘the sunset of his days’ means that a person is rather old. Sunset in the direct meaning is a natural phenomenon when the sun sets, that is when the day finishes. When used metaphorically, this word means ‘the time when the life is close to its end’.

  Similarity can be based on colour, form, character and speed of movement, dimensions, etc.

  Metaphor can be trite (ready-made). Trite metaphors are expressions created in poetry, in the Bible, in imaginative prose, that have gained wide currency and become known to everybody. Their expressive power has been partly lost.

  the ray of hope; floods of tears

  Fresh metaphors are created by the writer and not borrowed from another sourse.

  The graves yawned.

  Metaphors can be simple (one or two words or a phrase characterizing one image) and extended (or prolonged, which give additional characteristics not only to the image but also to the whole situation). Extended metaphors can be released on the text (paragraph, chapter, the whole story, novel), in the title of novels, stories.

  sweet smile – simple metaphor;

  In a cavern under is fettered the thunder, It struggles, and howls at fits . . .– extended metaphor.

  Metaphor has different kinds: personification, allegory, allusion, and zoonym.

  b) Personification is a specific kind of metaphor which consists in attributing human properties to lifeless objects – abstract notions (thoughts, actions, intentions, emotions, seasons, etc.). Personification is widely used in folk fairy-tales.

  The markers of personification are words written with capital letter, direct address, pronouns (he, she, you, his, her, him), specific words that primarily describe human beings, dialogues, etc.

  And winds are rude in Biscay's sleepless bay" (G. Byron)

  In poetry and fiction the purpose of personification is to help to visualize the description, to impart dynamic force to it, to reproduce the particular mood of the viewer.

  c) Zoonyms or zoomorphisms are a kind of metaphor in which the comparison with animal is made.

  She is a fox. – Fox is cunning and the person is cunning. She is a bush pig. – Она некрасивая неопрятная женщина. He is a real coon. – Он настоящий пройдоха. He is a lizard. – Он – лентяй.

  d) Allegory is a prolonged metaphor. It is a trope in which concrete images are used to express abstract notions and ideas about human relations, vice and virtue. We can find allegory in proverbs and sayings, legends, myths, fairy-tales, parables, fables, satirical and philosophical novels. They teach a lesson of ethic.

  Take the bull by the horns. – Бери быка за рога. In this case one does not mean a definite bull and its horns but means a quick beginning of some action.

  e) Allusion is a special variety of metaphor. Allusion is a brief reference to some literary or historical event commonly known.

  It was his Waterloo.

  The writer does not need to be explicit about what he means: he just mentions some detail of what he thinks analogous in fiction or history to the topic discussed. The educational level of the reader must be sufficient enough to understand the real sense of the message. Allusion is used in publicist articles, imaginative literature.

  Purposes of allusion:

1. to lend the text more objectivity and authenticity, to make it more convincing,
2. to testify to the speaker’s erudition, high educational level,
3. to speak about well-known facts without using many words, but metaphorically.

  Allusion requires definite knowledge of geography, history, the Bible, Greek mythology, philosophy.

6.3 Metonymy and its kinds

 

  a) Metonymy is applying the name of an object to another object that is in some way connected with the first one. The thought is concretized and its expression is shortened.

  Types of metonymy-forming relations of two objects are different. They can be based on:

  1. relationships between container and its content:

  The hall applauded. (We do not mean the hall itself, but the people, audience inside it)

  2. relation between concrete object and abstract phenomenon (symbol instead of the object symbolized):

  from the cradle to the grave (= from the birth to the death)

  3. consequence instead of cause:

  Fish desperately takes the death (‘death’ means ‘a fish hook’)

  4. names of tools instead of names of actions:

  He is a good whip. (= He is a good coachman)

  b) Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy. The name of a part denotes the whole thing.

  Miss Fox's hand trembled, she slipped it through Mr. Dombey's arm, and felt herself escorted up the steps, preceded by a cocked hat and a Babylonian collar (Ch. Dickens.) (cocked hat (треуголка) and Babylonian collar (воротник) mean people who wear these clothes)

    c) Antonomasia is a variety of metonymy. It is usage of the name of a historical, literary, mythological or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known original. Antonomasia is also found in speaking names.

  Othello (a jealous husband); Aesculapius (a doctor (jocular))

  A traitor may be referred to as ‘Brutus’; a ladies’ man is ‘Don Juan’.

  They drove through the park gate which was guarded by Mrs. Lock. 
 
 
 

6.4 Irony

  Irony is a contrast between what is said and what is meant. It is often based on other stylistic devices: hyperbole, meiosis, litotes, etc. There are two kinds of irony. The first represents utterances the ironical sense of which is evident to any native speaker, no one would ever take them at their face value. This kind of irony is called antiphrasis.

  That’s a pretty kettle of fish! (Хорошенькое дельце! Веселенькая история!)

  To the second variety belong utterances which can be understood either literary or ironically. The irony is understood according to the context.

  It is delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

6.5 The figures of quantity

 

  Hyperbole is exaggeration of dimensions or other properties of the object. Some hyperboles are stereotyped. In expressive hyperbole there must be something illogical, unreal, impossible, sudden, and unusual.

  I haven’t seen you for ages! (stereotyped hyperbole)

  One after another those people lay down on the ground to laugh – and two of them died (M. Twain) (expressive hyperbole)

  Hyperbole is used for humorous purposes; it is used more frequently in colloquial speech. In belle-lettres style it attracts our attention because it is unusual.

  There I took out my pig… and gave him such a kick that he went out the other end of the alley, 20 feet ahead of his squeal. (O.Henry)

  Sometimes hyperbole is combined with metaphor, the effect of the both is strengthened.

  Then, in a silence you could lean on, he plodded across the terrace… 

  Meiosis and its kinds 

  a) Meiosis, or understatement is lessening, weakening, reducing the real characteristics of the object of speech. This trope serves to underline the insignificance of what we speak about. 

• And what did you think of our little town? – asked Zizzbaum, with the fatuous smile of the Manhattanite.
• You’ve got good water, but Cactus City is better lit up.
• We’ve got a few lights on Broadway, don’t you think, Mr. Platt?

(The conversation is about New York, and ‘little town’, ‘a few lights on Broadway’ are examples of meiosis) 

  b) Litotes is a specific form of meiosis. It expresses an idea by means of negating the opposite idea. Litotes sounds less categorically, evasive. Its markers are the words ‘not without’, ‘not unlike’, two negative prefixes within one word, ‘not’ + antonym of the word, ‘non’ + negative suffix, etc. 

  not without his help, unillegal,  not unlike

  Captain Trevelyan was not overpleased about it. 

6.6 Other stylistic devices and expressive means

 

  Simile is a stylistic device based on likeness or similarity between two objects of outer reality. It implies some common features between these objects discovered by human mind. Simile is always formally marked. It is introduced by the conjunctions ‘as… as…’, ‘as if…’, ‘as though…’, ‘like’. There are some more subtle cases of simile, they are introduced by the verbs ‘seem, resemble, remind of, bring back a certain image, be the equivalent of’, etc. Simile can be marked by specific suffixes: -like, -wise, -looking.

  My heart is like a singing bird.

  Darkness fell like a stone.

  As proud as a peacock.

  an apelike fury, a table-cloth-wise ceiling, hungry-looking

  He held out a hand that could have been mistaken for a bunch of bananas in a poor light. (Gardner)

  Simile is less expressive than metaphor, because metaphor denotes a complete identification of two qualities or objects. Metaphor is called sometimes a concentrated simile.

  Simile should not be confused with comparison. In comparison homogeneous things are compared, that is two things which can be compared from the point of view of logic. In simile we compare two incomparable things belonging to different areas.

  She sings like a professional actress.. (comparison)

  She sings like a nightingale. (simile)

Synonymous replacement

  Synonyms are used in texts to avoid monotonous repetition of the same word.

  The little boy was crying. It was the child’s usual time for going to bed, but no one paid attention to the kid.

  Another purpose of co-occurrence of synonyms is providing additional shades of meaning. Sometimes it is not synonyms that replace one another, but words different in meaning. They are called ‘situational synonyms’. These synonyms signify the same thing.

  She told his name to the trees. She whispered it to the flowers. She breathed it to the birds.

Synonymic repetition

  Synonyms usually follow one another. Each synonym gives some additional features to the object, thus describing it in details. Sometimes the narrator deliberately searches for the most fitting synonyms.

  They were not yells, or howls, or shouts, or whoops, or yawps … they were simply indecent, terrifying, humiliating screams…

Gradation is arrangement of sentences with a gradual increase in importance, or emotional tension. Each following element is stronger than the previous one.

  It’s ended. It’s all over. It’s dead.

  I’m sorry. I’m so sorry. I’m so extremely sorry.