Ирина Эланс

Автор который поможет с любыми образовательными и учебными заданиями

Stylistic devices of semasiology

Metaphorical group

Now, we come to the most difficult, yet the most inventive and interesting, use of language, figurative language. This term refers to the use of words, not in their literal sense, but in a metaphorical or imaginative way. Although you may associate figurative language primarily with poetry, prose writers also use it to give great immediacy, greater drama, or stronger impact on an otherwise commonplace idea.

Metaphor is the transfer of the name of one object or person to another based on likeness, similarity of some features of these two objects.

A metaphor, in place of proper Words, Resemblance puts; and Dress to Speech affords.

Galperin considers that the idea that metaphor is based on similarity of two objects is erroneous. Identification should not be equated to resemblance. Therefore, it is better, in his view, to define metaphor as the power of realising two lexical meanings simultaneously.

A metaphor refers to a direct comparison in which the dominant quality or characteristic of one thing is transferred to another. Literally, such transference of meaning does not make sense, but the reader knows to interpret it as a comparison. In the phrase, "a will of granite," we are meant to see that the characteristics of granite - hardness, durability, and inflexibility - are being likened to the person's steadfastness and unwillingness to change. A dog, admittedly old, fat, and lazy, was once humorously described as "a barrel perched on four toothpicks."

John Knowles metaphorically described the ocean swimmer as "flotsam" to emphasise the swimmer's powerlessness against the turbulent force of the ocean.

Metaphor is a process of mapping between two different conceptual domains. The different domains are known as the target domain (tenor or topic) and the source domain (vehicle or object of nomination). The target domain is the topic or concept that you want to describe through the metaphor while the source domain refers to the concept that you draw upon in order to create the metaphorical construction.

In a news headline like THE WAR ERUPTS ON NEW FRONT, the sudden and unexpected outbreak of war is reported in the same terms as the violent eruption of a volcano. In rhetorical terms, the tenor (or topic) of the metaphor is war, but the vehicle/ object of nomination by which it is described is volcano.

Metaphors are a part and parcel, so to speak, of everyday discourse. The difference between sorts of metaphors in different discourse contexts is in the degree of novelty exhibited by a metaphor. As with any figure of speech, repeated use leads to familiarity, and so commonplace metaphors can sometimes develop into idioms or fixed expressions in the language. However, what arguably sets the use of metaphor in literature apart from more “idiomatised” uses of the trope is that in literature metaphors are on the one hand typically more novel and on the other stylistically less clear (P. Simpson). Writers consciously strive for novelty in literary expression and this requires developing not only new conceptual mappings but also new stylistic frameworks through which these mappings can be presented.

That’s why semantically there are two kinds of metaphor: trite/dead and genuine/living.

Different from trite/ dead metaphors, which are no longer felt as such, dead or disguised metaphors add to the stock of words and are studied in Lexicology. By trite metaphor we mean the transferred usage which, though the metaphoric nature of the expression is evident, is so familiar and customary that one does not always notice it, and the expression is repeated as a ready-made one, not created in actual speech.

Metaphors may be created on the similarity of different physical properties, such as, for instance:

similarity of shape – crane, bulb, table’s leg;
similarity of position – foot of the mountain, head of the procession;
similarity of movement – fox-trot, to worm one’s way;
zoosemy – a fox, a bear, a monkey, to ape

Trite metaphors give rise to phraseological word groups: to fly into a passion, to jump to conclusion, to fall in love.

Genuine metaphor is fresh and original. They serve as an expressive means in pictorial language. Genuine metaphors are generally created and accepted with a consciousness of their nature as substitutes for their literal equivalents. The wider the gap between the associated objects the more striking and unexpected and expressive is the metaphor. They are studied in stylistics.

His words were coming so fast; they were leap-frogging themselves. (R. Chandler)

A metaphor implies a resemblance between two distinctly different things without using like or as, e.g.: Life is a bowl of cherries.

The wide curving street dozed peacefully in the sun. (R. Chandler)

Structurally metaphorical use of language ranges from single words or phrases (simple / elementary) to whole contexts consisting of several sentences (sustained metaphors).

Single words: The TV programmes rekindled her fears of revolution. ...

Compound words: The vinegar-hearted cook

Phrases: Sales will ...go through the roof.

Sustained/prolonged/extended metaphors: sentences and beyond

Blondes, wars, famines - they all arrived on the same train. They unpacked together. They stayed at the same hotel. It is а small step from the playground into the classroom, and the men have already taken it.

Metaphor is usually realised in the predicative group.

E.g.: He turned his head. His eyes were lumps of ice. (R. Chandler)

Functionally there are several types of metaphor:

nominative ( one name which is substituted for by another). The nominative metaphor gives a new name to a class of objects: a leg of the table, an arm of the clock
cognitive (is created as a result of the shift in the combinability of qualifying lexical units, when their meaning becomes more abstract). Objects named are given the features of quite different objects: black despair, time flie.
figurative or image bearing ( a means of evaluation and discriminations of the shades of meaning): The machine sitting at that desk was no longer a man; it was a busy New York broker. (O. Henry)
Canonised metaphors turn into symbols: rose = love; dove = peace; red colour = love, passion

Functions and stylistic effects

to carry out the aesthetic function (it appeals to imagination rather than gives information)
to create imagery
to reveal the author’s emotional attitude towards what he describes

There are several structural varieties of metaphors – metaphorical epithet, antonomasia, personification, allegory.

Antonomasia is an identification of human beings with things, which surround them. It is a type of renaming for giving an additional information about the bearer of the name.

There are two types:

the use of a proper name for a common noun: Othelo, Don Quixote;

He is the Napoleon of crime (C. Doyle)

But he kept snowing her in this Abraham Lincoln, sincere voice. (J. Salinger)

the use of common nouns as proper names ( speaking/token/telling names): Mr. Murdstone; Mrs. Snake; Miss Toady

Functions and stylistic effects

to characterise a person
to point out the leading, most conspicuous features of a person
to achieve a humorous effect

Personification is ascribing human behaviour and thoughts to inanimate objects. It is a transfer of features and characteristics of a person to a thing (very often nature); ascribing to a natural phenomenon qualities, feelings and thoughts of a human being.

E.g. She had been asleep, always, and now life was thundering imperatively at all her doors. (J. London)

Slowly, silently, now the moon walks the night in her silvery shoon (shoes) (de la Mare)

If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster.

And treat those two impostors just the same (R. Kipling)

Old father time

My love is young.

Dylan Thomas in Under Milk Wood personifies the sunrise and likens it to an energetic person:

The sun springs down on the rough and tumbling town. It runs through the hedges of Goosegog Lane, cuffing the birds to sing. Spring whips green down Cockle Row, and the shells ring out.

It is realised only within a certain context and is used only in emotive prose/fiction.

Functions and stylistic effects

to give vivid characteristics to a phenomenon
to create the imagery
to enhance the expressiveness of the text

Allegory is the expression of an abstract idea through some concrete image or object. It is realised within the frames of the whole text. It is Antonomasia realised within the whole text.

It may be presented by:

a proverb/saying: It’s time to turn ploughs into swords. All is not gold that glitters. Still waters run deep.
fable
literary fiction

Some genres of literature are fully based on allegory: fables, fairy tales.

After two centuries of crusades the Crescent (=the Moslem religion) defeated the Cross (= Christianity) in all south-western Asia.

Functions and stylistic effects

to stress the logical meaning of speech by adding to it some emotive colouring
to enhance the poetic expressiveness of the text

Epithet – word or word combination used attributively to give not logical but expressive characteristics (both real and imaginary) of a thing or person. It is an interaction of logical and emotive meanings, which produce a subjective evaluation.

The iron hate in Soul pushed him on again. (M. Wilson)

The difference between a logical attribute and an epithet: the logical attribute is objective and non-evaluative: wooden table, blank sheet of paper.

The epithet gives an emotional assessment and individual evaluation to the object described: a wooden/blank face, iron lady.

There is an interaction of logical and emotive meaning. It is markedly subjective and evaluative

I got up and started towards the door in a dead silence. (R. Chandler)

Semantically there are:

affective/emotive epithets: they convey the emotional evaluation of the object (gorgeous, atrocious);
figurative/unassociated: based on metaphors, metonymies and similes: a ghost-like face; helpless loneliness.

It was a sad old bathrobe (J.Salinger)

There is a group of associated/fixed/conventional/standing epithets: true love, Merry Christmas, fair lady.

Structurally the epithet may be:

simple (used singly (in the attributive or adverbial positions): an angry sky;
compound (a cloud-shaped giant);
two-step structures ( a pompously majestic female);
a phrase/clausal (a don’t-care attitude, six-o’clock-in-the-evening-enthusiastic-determined-and-well-intentioned-studier-until-midnight type)
inverted/reversed/metaphorical is based on a metaphor and commonly expressed by an “of-phrase” (a toy of a girl).

The difference between the inverted epithet and an ordinary of-phrase: the article with the second noun: the toy of the girl is a noun phrase; the toy of a girl is an epithet.

A ghost of a smile appeared on Soames’s face. (J. Galsworthy)

Functions and stylistic effects

to give an emotional evaluation
to convey the subjective attitude of the writer

metaphor - metonymy

Thus, metaphor and metonymy are two basic and universal means of the transfer of a name from one denotate to another.

What is the difference between them?

Semantically:

Metonymical group of EM is based on the contiguity of two objects. Metaphorical group is based on the transfer of the meaning based on the likeness (real or imaginary) of two objects.
Both metonymical and metaphorical transfer of meaning depends on the lexical meaning of the units. However, metonymical transfer of meaning is characterised by widening of the lexical meaning: The hall applauded. The metaphorical transfer is characterised by the narrowing of the lexical meaning: He is a bear.
Metonymy and metaphor differ in the way they are deciphered. In the process of disclosing the meaning implied in a metaphor, one image excludes the other. E.g.: The sky lamp of the night – the moon. This is not the case with metonymy. Metonymy while presenting one object to our mind doesn’t exclude the other: The blue coat started laughing.

Syntactically:

There are two communicative functions, which influence the formation of categorial and lexical meanings of the word:

the function of identification/nomination – the theme of the sentence
the predicative function (the rheme of the sentence)

Metonymy is linked to the identification function. It is usually expressed by nouns and is used in syntactical functions characteristic of nouns. It is more often found in the subject and object group. E.g.: The bottle-neck coloured.

The primary function of the metaphor is that if the predicative, the secondary function is identification. Metaphor is commonly used in the predicative group. When it is used as a subject, it takes on an anaphoric pronoun. E.g.: She was a fox. But this fox was especially cunning.

Лапти потянулись в город. – metonymy – identification function - theme

Он – настоящий лапоть. – metaphor – it entered the position of the predicative.

Irony is also based on the transfer of the meaning, but if metaphor is based on similarity and metonymy on contiguity, irony is based on the opposition / difference of two meanings of a speech unit (the one that is expressed and the one that is meant). Words acquire meanings opposite to their primary language meanings.

Irony (concealed mockery) is the use of a word, a phrase or a sentence, which has a positive meaning to express a negative one.

E.g. The house itself was not so much. It was smaller than Buckingham Palace, rather grey for California, and probably had fewer windows then the Chrysler Building. (R. Chandler)

Usually taking the form of sarcasm or ridicule in which laudatory expressions are used to imply condemnation or contempt. It foregrounds not the logical, but the evaluative meaning.

What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this favoured country! – They let the pauper go to sleep! (Ch. Dickens)

How early you’ve come!

The dictionary defines irony in many ways, but for our purposes, here are the three most relevant ones:

the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning;
an expression or utterance marked by a deliberate contrast between the apparent and intended meaning;
the incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs.

I looked at the First of the Barons. He was eating salad – taking a whole lettuce leaf on his fork and absorbing it slowly, rabbit-wise – a fascinating process to watch. (K. Mansfield)

The intended meaning is the opposite of that expressed by words used. The dictionary and contextual meanings stand in opposition to each other.

An Irony, dissembling with an air,

Thinks otherwise than what the words declare.

Armed with these definitions of irony, we can next examine the many shades of meaning that encompass this term. The shades of meaning might be clearer if you can imagine a continuum, a horizontal line on which to plot them. Moving from left to right along the continuum, we move from the most gentle forms of irony to the nastiest.

WIT / IRONY / SATIRE / CYNICISM / SARCASM / SARDONICISM

Wit - This term implies mental keenness, the talent for making an effective comment on them.

E.g.: Oscar Wilde, the Irish dramatist, once defined eternity as two people and a ham.

Irony - This term was defined at the beginning of this section.

Satire - An expression or literary work that seeks to expose folly and wickedness, often by means of irony and sarcasm, is satirical.

Cynicism - Cynicism is characterised by scorn for the motives and virtues of others; the belief that people are motivated by selfishness. The cynical tone is mocking and sneering, often bitter; it may or may not involve irony.

E.g.: When a rich man donates money to a charity, cynics say that his motive is to get a charitable deduction on his tax return.

Sarcasm - This refers to an expression or attitude that is sharply mocking or contemptuous, typically utilising statements or implications pointedly opposite or irrelevant to the underlying purport. Sarcasm suggests open taunting and ridicule; though it uses irony, its effect is considerably harsher, revealing an intention to hurt.

Sardonicism - This term can describe both content and manner of expression and is associated with scorn, derision, mockery, and cynicism. It is closely associated with sarcasm.

Functions and stylistic effects

to show the author’s attitude to / evaluation of something
to convey a negative meaning
to produce a humorous effect

Figures of identity

They are realised in the context on the basis of semantic affinity of different units within the frames of the given context. The speaker combines within an utterance or text the units whose meaning he/she considers similar.

Simile is a partial identification of two objects belonging to different classes or spheres. It is an expressive comparison of two objects which have common features.

E.g. The ugly one, Laverne, wasn't too bad a dancer, but the other one, old Marty, was like dragging the Statue of Liberty around the floor. (J. Salinger )

The object, which is compared, is called the tenor; the one, which it is compared to, is the vehicle. And the feature of similarity between two objects is the foundation.

Structural means of comparison:

1. Conjunctions: as / like

2. Adverbial clauses of comparison: He looked at Sibil as a mouse might look at a cat.

3. Adjectives in the comparative degree: Roy behaved worse than a cut-throat.

4. Adverbial word-combinations containing prepositional attributes: With the quickness of a cat, Samuel climbed up the tree.

Implied simile - formal markers are missing, but the relations between two objects are similar, we have implied simile, where notional or seminotional words (nouns, verbs) substitute the formal markers: to remind, to seem, resemblance.

E.g. He reminded James, as he said afterwards, of a hungry cat. (J. Galsworthy)

The difference between simile and metaphor

Simile mustn’t be confused with metaphor as both are based on comparison of similar objects. They differ structurally and semantically.

Structurally simile consists of two components - the subject of comparison and the object united by formal elements, connective words: as, as ... as, like, as though, as if, etc.

E.g. His praises went trampling over the delicate little play like a herd of elephants. (A. Huxley)

Semantically metaphor aims at identifying the objects; simile aims at finding some points of resemblance by keeping the objects apart. Metaphor only implies the feature which serves as the ground for comparison, simile often indicates this feature, it is semantically more definite.

E.g.: You couldn’t stop him. He was hot as a fire-cracker. (J. Salinger)

The difference between simile and logical comparison

Simile should also be distinguished from logical comparison.

Logical comparison deals with the notions belonging to the same class / sphere and states the degree of their similarity and difference. E.g.: The boy is as clever as his dad.

Simile combines the notions belonging to different classes. To use a simile is to characterise an object by bringing it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of things (heterogeneous classes of objects).

The steps drifted over with windblown sand and handrail was as cold and wet as a toad’s belly. (R. Chandler)

Comparison takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects. E.g. He is like a lion.

Simile excludes all the features of the two objects except one, which is made common to them.

E.g. He’s as brave as a lion.

Typology

Semantically

Many similes have become trite: As vain as a peacock. As sly as a fox

Genuine similes are striking and original.

E.g. His voice got as cool as a cafeteria dinner. (R. Chandler)

Structurally simile may be:

simple:

The sound of a faraway train, like a big beast shuffling in its sleep. (K. Mansfield)

extended:

Montermar Vista was a few dozen houses of various sizes and shapes hanging by their teeth and eyebrows to a spur of mountain and looking as if a good sneeze would drop them down among the box lunches on the beach. (R. Chandler)

Functions and stylistic effects

to emphasise a partial identity of two objects
to give new characteristics to the referent
to deepen our knowledge of the object described
to create imagery

Synonyms-substitutes / substituting synonyms – a thing or phenomenon already mentioned, supplementing new additional details or giving a new aspect to the characterisation of an object.

E.g. He brought home numberless prizes. He told his mother countless stories.

Some paired synonyms have become fixed in the language-as-a-system as clichés: lord and master; really and truly.

Пропало, пройшло, пролетіло,

Минулося, щезло, спливло,

Лишень головешками тліло,

Лишень попелищем цвіло.

Одвіялось, сном одіснилось,

Одмарилось - ген набулось,

Вкотилось і ген одкотилось,

Солоним риданням зайшлось.

(І.Драч)

Substituting synonyms are characterised by contextual similarity giving rise to emotive-evaluative meaning.

Synonyms-specifiers / specifying synonyms – is a chain of synonyms which specify the utterance, adding some new information.

E.g. Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going dear fellow. (R. Kent)

Functions and stylistic effects

to give a comprehensive, more detailed description of an object
to give nuances of meaning

Figures of opposition

This group of SD is characterised by the combination in context of two or more words or w/c with opposite meanings.

Antithesis is a stylistic device, which presents two contrasting ideas in order to stress this contrast. It is a combination of two words in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense. Antithesis is a confrontation of at least two phrases semantically opposite

E.g. The House of the wicked shall be overthrown: but the Tabernacle of the upright shall flourish. (Proverbs 14:11)

An opposition or contrast of ideas is expressed by using words, which are the opposites of, or strongly contrasted with, each other. This device is often moulded in parallel constructions.

E.g. When one is in town one amuses oneself. When one is in the country one amuses other people. (O. Wilde )

Слова одні нам тішать слух і зір,

А інші нас відштовхують раптово.

Antithesis is a device bordering on stylistics and logic. It’s essential to distinguish between antithesis and contrast. Contrast is a literary (not a linguistic) device based on the logical opposition between the phenomena set one against another.

They’re several variants of antithesis:

two opposite words characterise one and the same object.

E.g. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity. (Ch. Dickens)

two different objects receive opposite characteristics.

E.g. Large houses are still occupied while weavers’ cottages stand empty. (Gaskell)

two referents give not only contrasting features, but embracing a wider range of features.

E.g. New England had a native literature, while Virginia had none; numerous industries, while Virginia was all agricultural. (Th. Dreiser)

Functions and stylistic effects

to stress the contrast of the objects described
rhythmically organise the utterance

Oxymoron, from Greek it means wittily foolish - остроумно-глупое.

It is a combination of opposite meanings which exclude each oher or semantically incompatible.

E.g.: low skyscrapers, a poor millionaire, horribly beautiful.

Street damaged by improvements (O. Henry)

A man who was the Bully of humility. (Ch. Dickens )

Звимку сонце скрізь плач сміється.

Oxymoron is the joining together of apparent contradictions:Faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.

The difference between oxymoron and the antithesis

The oxymoron: a combination of words which are semantically incompatible (exclude each other). The contrasting idea is expressed by a single word combination, syntactically interdependent words – sad and pleasant thoughts, sweet hatred. Antithesis has not less than two word combinations – pleasant thoughts and sad meditations.

Oxymoron reveals the contradictory sides of one and the same phenomenon leading to some unexpected combinations of words.

Who can express the great littleness, and little greatness; the childish manliness, and manly Childishness of that blind God?

Some of them have become trite: Awfully nice. Pretty bad

It was pretty terrible. (E. Hemingway)

We sometimes feel he’s not a terribly good mixer. (J. Salinger)

There are titles based on this device: Живой труп.

Functions and stylistic effects

to reveal the contradictory sides of one and the same phenomenon
to reveal some unexpected qualities of the denotate
to create an original, emotionally charged utterance

Figures of inequality

Relations of inequality are the relations of meanings of words and w/c, which differ, in their emotive intensity or logical importance. There are two groups of these figures of speech:

figures based on actualising the emotional power of the utterance (climax and anticlimax)
figures based on two different meanings of words and w/c (pun, zeugma)

Climax/gradation (ladder) is an increasing gradation of meanings.

It is based on gradation in which every successive word or phrase is emotionally stronger and logically more important than the preceding one.

These are strings of semantically related words belonging to the same thematic group.

E.g. The eight-five cent dinner tasted like a discarded mail bag and was served by a waiter who looked as if he would slug me for a quarter, cut my throat for six bits and bury me at sea in a barrel of concrete for a dollar and a half plus sales tax. (R. Chandler)

Він так зажурився, аж скис.

На серці в нього ставало так погано, прикро, болісно.

The climatic arrangement of sentences secures a gradual increase in importance or emotional tension in the utterance.

A Climax by gradation still ascends,

Until the sense with finished Period ends.

Each successive unit is perceived as stronger than the preceding one

A gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways:

logical – from the point of view of the concepts embodied; there is a logical widening of notions.

E.g. Not only brute creatures, but men; nor they only, but likewise gods, yield to the violence of love.

emotional and emphatic – gradation of emotional and emphatic tension

E.g. The first canvas caused a faint titter, the second a decided ripple of amusement, and by the time the final canvas was exhibited the crowd was laughing heartily. (A.J. Cronin)

quantitative – a numerical increase (day by day, year by year).

E.g. They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected innumerable kitchens. (W.S. Maugham)

Functions and stylistic effects

emotional and logical intensification of the utterance
the actualisation of the emotional intensity of the utterance
to depict a phenomenon dynamically

Anticlimax is an opposite stylistic device to climax. It is a decreasing arrangement of meanings. The ideas are arranged in a descending order of significance.

E.g. Mess-jacket looked at me with his silent sleek smile. I watched it until it was no longer a smile, no longer a face, no longer anything but a dark figure against the landing lights. (R. Chandler)

Every successive word or phrase or sentence is emotionally or logically less strong than the preceding one.

There are two types of anticlimax:

gradual drop in intensity

E.g. They walked upstairs – 5 flights. At the first landing they stopped and kissed; she was careful on the next landing; on the third more careful still. On the next she stopped half way and kissed him fleetingly good-by. Finally it was good by with their hands and then the fingers slipping apart. (S. Fitzgerald)

sudden break in emotive power The final element, which the reader expects to be culminating, turns out to be trivial. There is a sudden drop from the lofty or serious to the ridiculous.

E.g. He was inconsolable – for an afternoon (J.Galsworthy)

Functions and stylistic effects

to convey a humorous effect
to create a paradox

Pun / paronomasia/play on words (каламбур) is a device based on polysemy, homonymy or phonetic similarity used to achieve a humorous effect.

The use of a word in such a way as to suggest two or more meanings, or the use of two or more words of the same or nearly the same sound with different meanings, so as to produce a humorous effect.

Many jokes and funny stories are based on pun.

E.g. - I wonder if I can see your mother, little boy. Is she engaged?

Engaged ?! She's married.

Хотів розвалитися у кріслі, а воно не витримало і розвалилося.

There are several kinds of pun:

pun based on polysemy

What is the meaning of the word matrimony?

Father says it isn’t a word, it’s a sentence.

The quickest way to break a bad habit is to drop it.

pun based on phonetic similarity

Professor – What kept you out of class yesterday – acute indigestion?

Student – No, a cute engineer.

A cynic was standing in front of an exhibition of modern picture labelled “Art Objects”.

“ Well “, he announced to the attendant in charge, “I should think Art would object, and I can’t say that I blame it.”

Functions and stylistic effects

to achieve a humorous effect
to add originality to the nomination of the object

Zeugma from Greek it means to join/to combine. It is a simultaneous realisation of two meanings of a polysemantic unit.

It is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to the adjacent word in the context. The primary and derivative meanings clash. By making the two meanings conspicuous in this particular way, each of them stands out clearly.

E.g. Everything was short including tobacco and people’s tempers. (E. Hemingway)

These are parallel constructions with unparalleled meaning. It is identical structurally, but different semantically.

E.g. It was my older brother - her darling - who was to inherit her resoluteness, her stubbornness, her table silver and some of her eccentricities. (J. Cheever )

The verb refers to different subjects or objects (direct and indirect).

He possessed two false teeth and a kind heart.

Polysemantic verbs that have a practically unlimited lexical valency can be combined with nouns of most varying semantic groups, homogeneous members that are not connected semantically. Thus it combines syntactical and lexical characteristics. Syntactically it is based on the similar structures, semantically it comprises different meanings.

Functions and stylistic effects

- to create a humorous effect

It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one. Zeugma is the realisation of two meanings with the help of a verb that refers to different subjects or objects.

The pun is more independent. It is not obligatory to have one word in the sentence to which the pun-word refers. It is more dependent on the context.