Usage of idioms in the modern English language

The Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan

 

Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages

The Chair of Simultaneous Interpretation

 

 

Faculty of Translation Studies and Foreign Philology

 

 

Begaliyeva Assiya (301 group)

 

 

 

Course paper

 

Usage of idioms in the modern English language

 

 

Specialty: 5B020726 Simultaneous interpretation from Kazakh into other languages

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Checked by Chitebayeva S.Zh.

Master of Arts

 

 

 

 

 

Almaty, 2013

 

CONTENT:

 

1. Introduction…………………………………………………….………..3
2. Main part

CHAPTER 1. Historical backgrounds: History of idioms……………………………………………………………………………6

1. Borrowings of English language during the 18th century…………………...6
2. Idioms referring to the period of time of 17 th  -  20 th   centuries…………….8

CHAPTER 2.  Usage of idioms in modern English language………………….13

2.1 Idioms used in different spheres……….………………………………………….………......................15

2.2 Differences in the usage of idioms in British and American English………………………..………………………………………………....24

III   Practical part

CHAPTER 3. How idioms are used in translation……………………………....29

IV Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...31

The list of used literature…………………………………………………………32

 

Introduction

 

Language study process requires considerable time, attention and hard work. However, this process can be really interesting and fascinating. The discipline comprises of a lot of branches about the language people speak, peculiarities of languages, influence of languages on one another, results of interchanging some grammatical or lexical units between languages, etc.  Research on language development is of a great essence while following through the history the development of culture and building relations between people.

Idioms reflect events of different periods of time. Studying idioms many authors call attention to the fact that they can more easily than other language units cumulate and store facts about the past, cultural semantics of a nation, traditions, customs, folklore, etc. because of the so called "cumulative" function of a language. The element which renders the information is called "national-cultural component". (See for example, Vereshchagin and Kostomarov, 1982:89). There exist many definitions of an idiom, but most theorists stress three main features: that this linguistic unit consists of more than one word, it is stable, and idiomatic, that is the meaning of a whole unit does not emerge from the meaning of words it consists of. (Kunin, 1984:7; Baranov and Dobrovol'skii, 1996:51).

The world can plainly see that English language is divided into several languages: British, American, Australian and Canadian. This course paper focuses mainly on American and British English languages. Both of them share a lot of common vocabulary stock – including idioms – there are two diachronically distinct types of idioms:

1. those inherited from British English but which changed some components one or two words) on the American soil
2. those the prototypes of which appeared on the American soil. Some of these idioms are borrowed by British English. In order to differentiate one from another we must know the origin.

To illustrate the first diachronic type there are some relevant examples from Collins COBUILD Idioms Workbook: British English “not see the wood for the trees” –American English “not see the forest for the trees”; British English “a storm in a teacup” – American English “A tempest in a teapot”. (Goodale, 1995:3).

Beginning several centuries ago the study of idioms is still of topical interest. The response  to the question “Why?” would be this “Idiom is a phenomenon existing in language, which in its turn is constantly changing, developing and growing. Idioms reflect almost all the changes occurring, or peoples` attitude towards it”.

In different periods of time linguists and historians made researches on how idioms emerge and change over time, how they are used in everyday life and in special spheres of human activity. Thanks to those summaries on the issue the language development is now better understood. The tendency now is being continued.

Since the world is rapidly changing nowadays, establishment of new relationships among countries is an inevitable process. New relationships can stand for business, trade, economics, culture and etc. Idioms are widely used in every branch mentioned above. Thus, translation of them play very important role.

The aim of the course paper is to define the significance of idioms in English language. Within this aim the following objectives are set to be accomplished:

1. To make a research on historical background of idioms of English language;
2. To define the role of idioms in different branches of life;
3. To analyze the importance of idioms in intercultural communications and in translation.

The method that was used while doing the course paper is the method of comparison, as known as comparative method. In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages or of one language at different stages of its development. The usage of idioms in 17th, 18th, 19th and 20th centuries and in modern English was compared in this course work.

The course paper comprises theoretical and practical parts. The theoretical part contains general information about idioms in English language and their development over time beginning from the 18th century up to present days. The practical part of the course paper shows how idioms are used in translation and their usage in everyday life.

The structure of the course paper is as following: introduction, main part (body, consisting of theoretical and practical parts), conclusion and the list of used literature.

 

 

 

CHAPTER  1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDS: HISTORY OF IDIOMS 

 

1. Borrowings of English language during the 18th century

 

What is an idiom? How many different types of idioms there are in English? Where do they come from? Are people from different cultures and backgrounds able to understand idioms from only the context? This has shown to be a subject of debate. It may be best to start with the definition of an idiom. An idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be made understood literally, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only through common use. Many linguists would say that idioms are figures of speech that deny the principle of compositionality. It might mean that idioms are words collocated together, which become fixed over time. These word expressions are first commonly used in groups, slowly changing the definitions of each of the constituents forming one word group that develops a specialized meaning, thus creating an idiom.

“Idiom” is not originally an English word – it is one of the many that have come into the language from Greek. “Idiom” means “one of a kind” and indicates that a phrase is being used with a special meaning that can be very different to the literal meaning.

 In making a study of any period from the point of view of linguistic change, it is necessary to examine many individual examples and thus to disentangle the more obvious threads of development. Before describing eighteenth-century idiomatic developments in detail, it may be observed that the vocabulary of that period is remarkable in having adopted a great number of new senses for words already existing, rather than having acquired completely new words. Some foreign borrowings occurred, such as influenza, originally an Italian word meaning any epidemic, and palaver from a Portuguese word used for talk with natives on the coast of Africa. Some formations were made from words  already existing, such as argufy. A few special forms were adopted from proper names, e.g. doily, taken from the name of a great haberdasher, of the early 18th century, or from dialect – codger. A far greater number, however, were used with a different signification, generally more idiomatic and colloquial, and one perfectly familiar to speakers of the present day, although unknown to the earlier age. Such new senses are those given to bore, fag, parade, tolerable, rigmarole, no chicken, all the rage and sweet on words which were used during the 18th century in senses with which modern ears are thoroughly conversant,  but which had previously borne a slightly different meaning.

Due to the previous impacts of French, Scandinavian and other languages on English language, lots of dialects in definite regions appeared and slang spread over population. All of this was the change that led to the wide use borrowed words. Inequality was on a high level, representatives of the poor and the rich used in their speech different slang and dialects.

Certain dialectal words appear in 18th century English, examples being clunch, used by members of the Burney family, and probably acquired at King`s Lynn, Norfolk; codger, regarded as a dialectal version of cadger, and used by Richard Burney; and jiim (meaning “smart”). Codger is the only one of these which has some claim to existence in Standard English. There are many other words adopted in the eighteenth century from slang, such as humbug and bamboozle, but these hardly rank as words borrowed from the speech of a lower social class, since slang is common to all classes, but it particularly prominent as a kind of alternative speech for those speakers of Standard English language who elect to use it.  Moreover, these words are to be considered rather as modern slang than as modern Standard English.

Later on, in the late 19th century literate people were able to recognize idioms, which have become unfamiliar now. The reason why is very simple – generation changed, language underwent considerable changes.

 

 

1.2  Idioms referring to the period of time of 17 th  -  20 th   centuries

 

As it has already been mentioned above, idioms can be considered as mirrors of the periods of time and event which took place in that time. Let me see a brief review of idioms reflecting events of the period of time from the 17th century till the 20th century. Let`s review idioms of American English, basing on the data of American Studies Perspective which  as an academic discipline numbers 60 years in the United States and about 50 years in Europe.

Idioms reflecting events of the 17th century. A very important historic event is reflected in the idiom a witch-hunt, the idiomatic meaning of which is: "a search for, and persecution of, people whose views are regarded as evil: The McCarthy witch-hunt in the United States from 1950-54 sought out members of the Communist Party." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The prototype of the idiom refers to the organized hunts for witches. And though it took place both in America and in Britain the idiom originally appeared in the United States. Against the background of extreme stress (being a colony of England, the country was in a state of war with the French and their Indian allies and in 1690 northern frontiers of New England and New York were devastated by enemy attacks) there occurred an outbreak of witch-hunt that led to accusations in witchcraft. It was especially severe in Salem Village. In 1692 nineteen people were hanged, another was pressed to death by heavy stones, and more than one hundred people were jailed. To explain this puzzling episode, the authors of the book A People and A Nation write, "to be understood it must be seen in its proper context--one of political and legal disorder, of Indian war, and of religious and economic change. It must have seemed to Puritan New Englanders as though their entire world was collapsing."(1990: 67-68).

"By the skin of my teeth:" This incredibly common, yet bizarre, phrase obviously has no physiological origin, but most English-speaking peoples have access to its very first use. The Geneva Bible, first published in 1560, translated Job 19:20 as such, and the idiom's meaning was used in much the same as it is now. Subsequent English bibles related it as either something very similar or hewing closer to referencing gums rather than literally skinned teeth.

"Green-eyed monster:" Unsurprisingly, William Shakespeare coined a bounty of idioms and expressions still used by English speakers today. His tragic drama Othello first referenced a "green-eyed monster," alluding to the jealousy and betrayal at the narrative's center. But rather than the expected vision of toothy viridian terror most people conjure up, the Bard actually used a cat seemingly playing with its captured meal before consumption.

"Let the cat out of the bag:" The most reasonable of the two historical explanations for this phrase actually ties into another one involving mammals and bagging — "a pig in a poke." Dating back to around 1530, cats often served as sneaky substitutes for their porcine peers when shady businesspeople tricked their customers. Clever consumers who exposed their deception eventually spawned the familiar idiom, which retains a similar, albeit broader, meaning today.

Idioms referring to the 18th century. There are some idioms which reflect everyday life of people during the 18th century. It refers to the idiom have an axe to grind, the idiomatic meaning of which is "to have a personal, often selfish, reason for being involved in something: I have no axe to grind--I just want to help you." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The etymology of this idiom presents a great interest. It represents a story as it is believed, told by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), American statesman, diplomat, author, scientist, and inventor, about a man who "had once asked him to demonstrate how his father's grindstone worked--and had then produced an axe which he wanted to sharpen." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995).

"Read the Riot Act:" While the idiom references "the riot act" in the abstract, such a legal proclamation did, in fact, exist. Under King George I, the real Riot Act was passed in 1714, enforced a year later and read out loud in order to quell gatherings of subjects the throne considered potentially threatening. Once concluded the "rioters" were given one hour to disperse before getting slapped with penal servitude and imprisonment sentences.

"Talking up a blue streak:" 18th Century America birthed this humorous little phrase used to describe incredibly quick speech patterns. Most etymologists and word geeks tend to think the "blue" refers to lightning tinged with the specific color. So the idiom's original metaphorical intent has stayed pretty much the exact same throughout the centuries.

Idioms referring to the 19th century. Most idioms describe the everyday life, they are connected with the tools. Fly off the handle idiomatically means "to lose one's tempo: He flew off the handle when he heard that the boys had raided his garden again." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The metaphor is based on the possibility of an axehead to fly off the handle while one is using it. According to D. Boorstin, the idioms came into use in 1825 (1993: 74). Tools and implements play an important role in the life of Americans, as in a life of any people. They are often used in idioms. The prototype of the idiom get the hang of (something) originally meant "to learn to use this or that tool." Idiomatic meaning is "to learn, or begin to understand, how to do (something): It may seem difficult at first, but you'll get the hang of it after a few weeks." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). A very important facet of life is diclosed in the idiom bark up the wrong tree, which presently means "to attempt to do the wrong thing or to do something in the wrong way or from the wrong direction: You're barking up the wrong tree if you think you will be able to influence the judge." The metaphor comes from racoon-hunting, where dogs were used to locate racoons up in trees. (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). There are many idioms including elements denoting hunting in the common vocabulary stock, most of them were inherited by American English. It is noteworthy to underline that the idioms describes hunting a new animal, racoon, the habitat of which is the North America. D.Boorstin refers this idiom to 1833 (1993: 74).

"Paint the town red:" Multiple theories exist regarding the history of the idiom that conjures up images of nocturnal bacchanalian fervor, with one in particular standing out. Around 1837, the infamous troublemaker Marquis de Waterford and his accomplices spent an evening vandalizing the English town Melton Mowbray. Some of the night's raucous festivities included literally painting various buildings — even a tollbooth — a lovely (and obvious) shade of red.

"Lowbrow," "Middlebrow" and "Highbrow:" Despite these idioms' vastly different meanings, all of them share the same pseudo-scientific roots. The once-accepted field of phrenology, which enjoyed popularity in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, wrongly posited that the size of one's forehead indicated the size of one's brain. "Highbrow," of course, was thought to indicate the most intelligence, and 1875 marked its first appearance in English vernacular.

"Selling like hotcakes:" Around 1839, this tasty term likened anything that sold out quickly to one of America's most popular foodstuffs. Hotcakes and pancakes have always enjoyed a beloved spot in the nation's culinary heart, and serve as some of the best metaphors for anything that flies off the shelves. They never blew up as one major "flash in the pan" fad, but rather endured as a classic, reliable comfort food.

Idioms referring to the 20th century. The period of Prohibition gave rise to several idioms pertaining to the organized crime. Many Americans first heard about this type of crime in the early 1920s when it was started by notorious Al Capone with bootlegging in Chicago. Later he came to control much of illegal activities: extortion, gambling, prostitution, narcotics, etc. (Flexner, 1982: 435). The activity of gangsters is reflected in the idiom take (someone) for a ride, which had a variant take (someone) for a one-way ride, the etymological meaning was "to kill someone in a moving car", it was originally gangster's slang reflecting a common practice of exterminating a person without attracting attention. Metaphorical meaning is: "to trick, chit or decieve (someone): He doesn't actually work for a charity at all, so the people who have sent him money have been taken for a ride." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). Three other idioms in the material under study also refer to the same period and all of them came from the gangster`s slang. Thus, the idiom put (someone) on the spot means "to place (someone) in a dangerous, difficult or embarrassing position: The interviewer's questions really put the Prime Minister on the spot." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). Originally it meant "to decide to kill someone." Give (someone) the works metaphorically means "to give someone the full treatment:They've certainly given her the works at the hairdresser's -- she's had her hair cut, tinted and permed." The prototype meant "to kill someone" (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). Though the prototype of the idiom stool-pigeon meaning "a pigeon tied to a stool and used as a decoy" goes back to the 1830's, the spread and active use refers to the 1920's (Flexner, 1982: 436). Idiomatic meaning is "an informer or spy especially for the police: The police received information about the planned robbery from a stoolpigeon." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995).

A later period can be seen in the idiom on the breadline meaning "with barely enough money to live on: The widow and her children were living on the breadline." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The idiom reminds about The Great Depression (1929 - the late 1930's). But the worst period was between 1929 - 1933, when unemployment reached 13 million people in 1933 which comprised one fourth of the labor force. It is at that time that soup kitchens were opened by such organizations as Red Cross and Salvation Army in the United States, the poorest people queued in breadlines. (A People..., 1990: 730) So, the prototype of the idiom meant literally "queues of destitute people waiting for free food from soup-kitchens, especially run by the government." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995).

"Screaming meemies:" At least two possible origins for this bizarre phrase exist, one as 1920s slang term for intoxication, the other an onomatopoeia describing German artillery shells used in World War I. With the latter, soldiers coming home with an unfortunate case of PTSD were often referred to as suffering the "screaming meemies." From there, the idiom eventually swelled to include anyone who felt afraid or traumatized by a scary situation.

"Back to square one:" Several different possible histories of this curious idiom exist, though only one from 1952 seems the most likely. Snakes and Ladders, known as Chutes and Ladders in the United States, may not have sent unlucky players straight to the first square. But this did not stop an Economic Journal article from wielding it as a metaphor for having to start over from the very beginning.

Idioms reflecting the way of life on the American frontier. So much has been written on the frontier that it is difficult to find any subject not covered in the literature. The role of the frontier is tremendous not only in the history but also in contemporary life of Americans. Thus, R.A.Billington sees the impact of frontier in some characteristics of the American people, "during three centuries of expansion their attitudes toward democracy and nationalism and individualism were altered, and they developed identifiable traits not shared in like degree by their European ancestors: wastefulness, inventiveness, mobility, and a dozen more." (Billington, 1991: V). Other authors describe the image of the frontier. For example, L. Schlissel underscores how different the image of frontier may be, "it could mean deep forests or grasslands stretching for a thousand miles; it could mean red dirt flats or outcroppings of rock surging up against the sky." (Schlissel, 1988:81). The impact of the frontier can be seen in many spheres of American culture.

The material under study provides examples which imply the way of life on the frontier. The idiom rope (someone) in reflects the experience of catching and collecting cattle with the help of lassoes by the frontiersmen in the West. That is the direct meaning and the idiomatic meaning is "to include (someone); to persuade (someone) to join in doing something: We roped him in to help." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The prototype of the idiom this neck of the woods originally denoted a remote community in the woods, later the idiomatic meaning "a particular place or part of the country" developed which can be seen from the example: What do you do in the evening in this neck of the woods? (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). Though the frontier was different a lot is connected with a life in the woods that predetermined many typical American characteristics. Billington writes, "No matter how nationalistic the frontiersmen might be, they were backwoodsmen, living in comparable isolation from the main currents of life..." (Billington, 1991: 212-213). The life in the woods is also reflected in the idiom have a chip on one's shoulder, the etymological meaning of which was "a reference to a man who carries a piece of wood balanced on his shoulder in the hope that someone will give him an excuse for a fight by knocking it off". The idiomatic meaning is: "to have rather an aggressive manner, as if always expecting to be insulted, ill-treated etc: He is very difficult to deal with--he's always had a chip on his shoulder about the lack of education." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). The origin of the idiom run-of-the-mill has reference to the life in the woods too. It came to mean "not special or unusual" as can be seen from the example: The film on television last night was very run-of-the-mill. Originally it meant "ungraded sawn timber as produced by a sawmill." (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995). One more facet of frontier history, the gold rush of the 1850's and 1860's, can be found out in the idiom strike (it) lucky, the etymological meaning of which expressed anticipation of gold miners (forty-niners) to find gold or silver. Idiomatic meaning: "to have good luck in a particular matter: We certainly struck lucky in choosing that school" (Kirkpatrick and Schwarz, 1995).

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER 2.  Usage of idioms in modern English language

 

1. Idioms used in different spheres

 

Globalization is taking over, our life and different spheres of it go through constant changes. Life changes – language does the same. The reason is language is the mirror of life, and according to the demand of it lexical units of the language (words, word combinations, phrases, sentences) acquire new meanings, which often may be misunderstood or confused. Lexicography – the study of the meaning, evolution and function of the vocabulary units of a language – successfully copes with registration of new meanings of language units. Nowadays there are numerous dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, phrasal verbs and idioms. That is what this course paper focuses on.

Business English has its own stock of idioms.

 

IDIOM		MEANING	EXAMPLE OF USAGE
Across the board		Nothing or nobody would be exempted; everything, everybody	The union wants a salary increase across the board.
Bang for buck		Value for money; To realize the full worth of investments or expenses	We will get a high bang for buck if we put our money in stocks.
Strike while the iron is hot		To seize a present opportunity that may easily go away; To take advantage of an existing chance	The executives decided to strike while the iron is hot and bought into the fast-growing and progressive start-up company quickly.
Saddled with debt		To be burdened with huge debt; Financial crisis	Saddled with debt, the bank filed for bankruptcy and for protection against debt collectors.
Calculated risk		A risk or an action that has been well studied and is thought to have high chances of resulting in success	We were taking a calculated risk when we decided to invest in stocks rather than in bonds.
Captain of the industry and Bigwig		A person considered as an influential leader in an industry. A bigwig is similar to captain in the industry but is often used to refer a ranking or important person in a company	The founder of this conglomerate is a captain of the industry. All the bigwigs working for him in his many companies respect and fear him.
Carve out a niche		Specialize or satisfy a market need that has been unaddressed; Concentrate or focus resources on a particular market need	The shoemaker decided to carve out a niche and not compete with mass shoe producers.
Fair play	Equal and non-discriminating treatment; It is often associated with justice		The technology company has a record of fair play. It treats its union members with respect and has always given them more than what they ask for in negotiations.
Gain Ground and Get off the Ground	To gain ground means to make some progress; Get off the ground is a similar idiom but it is frequently used to refer to progress made at the beginning of a process		The company is gaining ground in its hopes to become a market leader. Two of its three new product lines are getting off the ground and poised to gain large market shares within the current year.
Heads will roll	Someone or some people will be punished; This idiom is meant to be a warning that disciplinary actions will be served		Heads will roll when media people learn about this multi-million-dollar fraud.
Compare apples to oranges	to compare two unlike things; to make an invalid comparison		Comparing a night in a budget motel with a night in luxury hotel is like comparing apples to oranges.
At a premium	at a relatively high price		When flat-screen TVs first came out, they were selling at a premium
Belt-tightening	Reduction of expenses		When worldwide demand for software decreased, Microsoft had to do some bept-tightening.
Brownie points	Credit for doing a good deed or for giving someone a compliment(usually a boss or teacher)		Sara scored brownie points with her boss by volunteering to organize the company`s holiday party.
Cash cow	A product, service, or business division that generates a lot of cash for the company, without requiring much investment		With strong sales every year and a great brand name, Mercedes is a cash cow for DaimlerChrysler
Climb the corporate ladder	Advance in one`s career; The process of getting promoted and making it to senior management		You want to climb the corporate ladder? It helps to be productive and to look good in front of your boss.
Dot your I’s and cross your T’s	To be very careful; To find new customers		When preparing financial statements, be sure to dot your I’s and cross your T’s.

 

 

Drum up business	To create business; to find new customers	Sales have been very slow lately. Do you have any ideas for drumming it up?
Face the music	To admit that there is a problem; To deal with an unpleasant situation realistically	Enron executives finally had to face the music and admit that they were involved in some illegal activities
Fast track of project	To make a project a high priority; To speed up the time frame of a project	Let`s fast track of project. We`ve heard rumors that our competitors are developing similar products.
Generate lots of buzz	To cause many people to start talking about a product or service, usually in a positive way that increases sales	Procter & Gamble generated lots of buzz for its new toothpaste by giving away free samples to people on the streets of New York City.
Jump the gun	To start doing something too soon or ahead of everybody else	The company jumped the gun by releasing a new product before the results of the consumer testing were in.
Keep one`s eyes on the prize	To stay focused on the end result; To not let small problems get in the way of good results	I know it is difficult going to class after work, but just keep your eyes on the prize.
Pull one`s weigh	To do one`s share of the work	Do not rely on others to get your job done. You need to pull your own way.
Rally the troops	To motivate others; To get other people excited about doing something	After the lay-offs and salary cuts, the airline president organized a meeting to rally the troops and plan for the next year.

 

 

In the trade branch idioms are of a great essence. From the table below you can find several examples of the most widely used idioms in the sphere of trade.

 

IDIOM	MEANING	EXAMPLE OF USAGE
Stock in trade	Whatever goods, skills, etc., are necessary to undertake an activity	Packing household goods is my stock in trade.
Jack of all trades is a master of none	If you are able to do a lot of things fairly well, you do not have time to learn to do one extremely well	Harry can do so many things: he writes novels, makes sculptures, plays guitar. But he probably doesn`t do all of them terribly good.
Trade something off	To get rid of something in an exchange	I traded off my old car for a new one.
Do a roaring trade	To sell a lot of goods quickly	The toy department was doing a roaring trade in furry dinosaurs.
Ply your trade	To do your usual work	Fishermen in small boats ply their trade up and down the coast.
The tools of the trade	The things that you need to use in order to do a job	For the modern sales executive, a car phone is one of the tools of the trade.
Crunch time	A short period of time when there is high pressure to achieve a result	It is crunch time for stem cell researches in Korea.
Hard sell	An aggressive way of selling	Car salesmen are famous for using the hard sell on their customer
On top of trends	Aware and responding to the latest tastes	The Gap is on the top of trends, they always have the latest styles in their stores.
Nothing ventured, nothing gained	If you don`t try to do something, you will never succeed	It is risky to spend so much money developing a new brand, but nothing ventured, nothing gained.
Plug a product	To promote a product; To talk positively about a product	American Express often hires famous people to plug their credit cards.
Scale back one`s hours	To reduce the number of hours one works	When Christine had a baby, she decided to scale back her hours and just work part-time.
Reality check	Let`s think realistically about the situation	You think we can start selling our products through our website next month? Time for a real check! Nobody at our company knows anything about e-commerce.
Work out the kinks	To solve the problem with	The company announced that they will delay the launch of their new product by two weeks. They still need to work out the kinks with their packaging process.
Yes man	An employee who always agrees with the boss or does whatever the boss says	Do not expect Larry to argue with the boss. He is a yeas man.

 

 

English language numbers more than 25 000 idioms, in each sphere people face with the use of the idioms: during negotiations, in a shop, in song lyrics, etc. But the highest possibility of facing with the  usage of idioms is due to the everyday speech. Idioms are a part of our speech that we use absent-mindedly, automatically. Representatives of one language freely operate with idioms in his or her native language, but when learning a foreign language idioms may cause a great deal of misunderstanding. In this case we need to look up the idiomatic expression in dictionaries. The table below shows several of the most frequently used idioms in everyday speech.

 

 

IDIOM	MEANING	EXAMPLE OF USAGE
To have a narrow escape	To be very close to danger or something terrible but manage to escape	I had a narrow escape this morning. I was cycling to  work when a  lorry knocked me off my bike.
To be/go as white as a sheet	To be very pale in the face, especially because of illness or great fear	She went pale as she heard about the terrible murder happened in the house.
Shaking like a leaf	To tremble with a fear or great anxiety	I was shaking like a leaf when my neighbor`s big dog was running up to me.
The sky`s the limit	You haven`t got any limits to improve yourself	I dare to dream big and only the sky is the limit for me.
That is beside the point	It doesn`t concern the matter	We are talking about ballet, IT technologies is beside the point.
To get one`s hand on somebody	To interfere into somebody`s business	He was too annoying so I asked him to get his hands out my business.
A write-off	Completely destroyed	The car cannot be used anymore, it`s write-off.
To have a real heart-to-heart with	To have a friendly conversation	When I last saw him we had a real heart-to-heart in that cozy restaurant on the Gastings avenue.
That`s all water under the bridge	To forget everything (esp., bad things) which took place in the past	They split up a year ago, but agreed on that`s all water under the bridge.
Hit below the belt	To act in an unfamiliar way	The candidate of the opposition party spread false rumours about the Minister. People felt that he was hitting below the belt.
Gift of the gap	The ability to speak well	I was able to keep the audiences amused with her stories. She surely has the gift of the gab.

 

Make a mountain out of a molehill	To give great importance to minor things	Aisha stopped talking to Jadyra because she did not lend him her notebook. I think she is making a mountain out of a molehill.
Make hay while the sun shines	Make the best of a good situation while it lasts	Mr. Begaliyev got the big contract to supply machine parts to a big Japanese company. He should make hay while the sun shines.
Hit the nail on the head	Be exact or accurate	Darkhan is a genius. He hit the nail on the head when he said that the car was overheating because of a leaking radiator.
Throw in the towel	To admit being defeated	I am unable to solve this question. I am ready to throw in the towel.
No stone unturned	Make all possible efforts	He is leaving no stone unturned in his efforts to get into an engineering college.
Born with a silver spoon in one`s mouth	To be born in a very rich family	Priya was born with a silver spoon in her mouth. Her father gave her an expensive car on her eighteenth birthday.
Keep one`s fingers crossed	Hope for a positive outcome	My results will come out day after tomorrow. I am keeping my fingers crossed.
Break the ice	Overcome the initial shyness	The teacher asked the students to introduce themselves to each other to break the ice.

at loggerheads	To differ strongly	The two brothers can never work together. They are always at loggerheads.
Pull up one`s socks	to make an effort to improve	Aidar scored only forty on his English mid-term exams. He needs to pull up his socks if he wants to do well in his finals.

 

Whichever sphere one considers he or she will inevitably face with the usage of terminology and idioms. Idioms always give the meaning totally different from that of its components may mean separately. And in different spheres idioms refer to absolutely different essence. However, there are idioms which are unrestricted in their use which means that they can be used in several spheres equally.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Differences in the  usage of idioms in British and American English

 

 

If you look up the word idiom in Webster, you will be given the following definition: Idiom is an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent element as kick the bucket, hang one's head etc., or from the general grammatical rules of language, as the table round for the round table, and which is not a constituent of a larger expression of like characteristics. This definition seems a bit dry and doesn't really tell anything about the function of idioms in English language.  
            English is a language particularly rich in idioms - those modes of expression peculiar to a language (or dialect) which frequently defy logical and grammatical rules. Without idioms English would lose much of its variety and humor both in speech an writing.  
             The background and etymological origins of most idioms is at best obscure. This is the reason why a study of differences between the idioms of American and British English is somewhat difficult. But it also makes the cases, where background, etymology and history are known, even more interesting. Some idioms of the "worldwide English" have first been seen in the works of writers like Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Lewis Carroll or even in the paperbacks of contemporary novelists. An example of Shakespearian quotation can be found in the following sentence:"As a social worker, you certainly see the seamy side of life." Biblical references are also the source of many idioms. Sports terms, technical terms, legal terms, military slang and even nautical expressions have found their way to the everyday use of English language. Following are some examples of these, some used in either American or British English and some used in both:  
"Having won the first two Tests, Australia is now almost certain to retain the Ashes." (Ashes is a British English idiom that is nowadays a well-established cricket term.)  
"In his case the exception proves the rule." (A legal maxim -- in full:"the exception proves the rule in cases not excepted". Widely used in both American English and British English.)  
"To have the edge on/over someone." (This is originally American English idiom, now established in almost every other form of English, including British Emglish.)  
"A happy hunting ground." (Place where one often goes to obtain something or to make money. Originally American English idiom from the Red Indians' Paradise.)  
           In the old days English idioms rarely originated from any other form of English than British English. (French was also a popular source of idioms.) Nowadays American English is in this position. It is hard to find an American English idiom that has not established itself in "worldwide English" (usually British English). This is not the case with British English idioms which are not as widespread. It has to be remembered that it is hard to say which idioms are actively used in English and which are dying out or have already died. Idioms are constantly dying and new-ones are born.  
            Some idioms may have gone through radical changes in meaning. The phrase - There is no love lost between them - nowadays means that some people dislike one another. Originally, when there was only the British English form, it meant exactly the opposite. The shift in meaning is yet unexplained. All dialects of English have different sets of idioms and situations where a given idiom can be used. American English and British English may not, in this respect, be the best possible pair to compare because they both have been developing into the same direction, at least where written language is concerned, since the Second World War. The reason that there is so much American influence in British English is the result of the following:  
1. Magnitude of publishing industry in the U.S.;  
2. Magnitude of mass media influence on a worldwide scale;  
3. Appeal of American popular culture on language and habits worldwide;  
4. International political and economic position of the U.S.  
All these facts lead to the conclusion that new idioms usually originate in the U.S. and then become popular in so-called "worldwide English". This new situation is completely different from the birth of American English as a "variant" of British English. When America was still under the rule of the Crown, most idioms originated from British English sources. Of course there were American English expressions and idioms too, before American English could be defined as dialect of English.

Some examples of these early American English idioms follow:  
"To bark up the wrong tree." (Originally from raccoon-hunting in which dogs were used to locate raccoons up in trees.)  
"Paddle one's own canoe." (This is an American English idiom of the late 18th Century and early 19th Century.)  
Some of these early American idioms and expressions were derived from the speech of the American natives like the phrase that "someone speaks with a forked tongue" and the "happy hunting ground" above. These idioms have filtered to British English through centuries through books, newspapers and most recently through powerful mediums like radio, TV and movies.  
Where was the turning point? When did American culture take the leading role and start shaping the English language and especially idiomatic expressions? There is a lot of argument on this subject. Most claim that the real turning point was the Second World War. This could be the case. During the War English-speaking nations were united against a common enemy and the U.S. took the leading role. In these few years and a decade after the War American popular culture first established itself in British English. Again new idioms were created and old ones faded away. The Second World War was the turning point in many areas in life. This may also be the case in the development of the English language.  
In the old days the written language (novels, poems, plays and the Bible) was the source from which idioms were extracted. This was the case up until WWII. After the war new mediums had established themselves in English-speaking society, there was a channel for the American way of life and the popular culture of the U.S. TV, movies and nowadays the interactive medium have changed the English language more to the American English direction. Some people in the Europe speak the Mid-Atlantic English, halfway from the British English to American English.  
           The influence of American English can even be seen in other European languages. In Finland, we are adopting and translating AmE proverbs, idioms and expressions. It can be said that the spoken language has taken the leading role over the written and the only reason for this is TV and radio. Most proverbs and idioms that have been adopted to British English from American English are of spoken origin. This is a definite shift from the days before WWII. What will this development do to the English language? Will it decrease its value? This could be argued, but the answer would still be no. Languages develop and change. So is the case with English language and idioms.  
           How then does American English differ from British English in the use of idioms? There are no radical differences in actual use. The main differences are in the situations where idiomatic expressions are used. There have been many studies recently on this subject. American English adopts and creates new idioms at a much faster rate compared to British English. Also the idioms of American English origin tend to spread faster and further. After it has first been established in the U.S., an American idiom may soon be found in other "variants" and dialects of English.

Nowadays new British idioms tend to stay on the British Isles and are rarely encountered in the U.S. British idioms are actually more familiar to other Europeans or to the people of the British Commonwealth than to Americans, even though the language is same. The reason for all these facts is that Britain is not the world power it used to be and it must be said that the U.S. has taken the role of the leading nation in the development of language, media and popular culture. Britain just doesn't have the magnitude of media influence that the United States controls.  
            The future of idiomatic expressions in the English language seems certain. They are more and more based on American English. This development will continue through new mediums like the Internet and interactive mediums. It is hard to say what this will do to idioms and what kind of new idioms are created. This will be an interesting development to follow, and by no means does it lessen the humor, variety and color of English language. 

 

III   Practical part

CHAPTER 3. How idioms are used in translation

 

The fullest understanding of the native speakers can be received from the idioms of initial language because it is the idiom that shows history and culture, mode and world perception of a nation.

The way in which an idiom or a fixed expression can be translated into another language depends on many factors. It is not only a question of whether an idiom with a similar meaning is available in the TL. Other factors include, for example, the significance of the specific lexical items which constitute the idiom, i.e. whether they are manipulated elsewhere in the ST, as well as the appropriateness of using idiomatic language in a given register in the TL. The acceptability of using any of the strategies described below will therefore depend on the context in which a given idiom is translated. The first strategy described, that of finding an idiom of similar meaning and form in the TL may seem to offer the ideal solution, but that is not necessarily always the case. Questions of style, register and rhetorical effect must also be taken into consideration. Fernando and Flavell are correct in warning us against the “strong unconscious urge in most translators to search hard for an idiom in the TL, however inappropriate it may be” (1981:82).