Usage of lexical and grammatical transformations in translation
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………
INTRODUCTION
Translation is the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language and the production, in another language, of an equivalent text that communicates the same message. Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, their idioms and the like. Consequently, as has been recognized at least since the time of the translator Martin Luther, one translates best into the language that one knows best. Traditionally translation has been a human activity, though attempts have been made to computerize or otherwise automate the translation of natural-language texts (machine translation) or to use computers as an aid to translation (computer-assisted translation). [1; 48] Perhaps the most common misconception about translation is that there exists a simple “word-for-word” relation between any two languages, and that translation is therefore a straightforward and mechanical process. On the contrary, historical differences between languages often dictate differences of expression. Hence, source and target texts may differ significantly in length. In addition, translation is always fraught with uncertainties as well as the potential for inadvertent “spilling over” of idioms and usages from one language into the other, producing linguistic hybrids, for example, "Franglais" (French-English), "Spanglish" (Spanish-English) and "Poglish" (Polish-English). [2; 31] The aim of this term paper is devoted to peculiarities of scientific-technical translation. The following tasks were set up to identify translation peculiarities: 1. Reveal and describe common linguistic basis of translation, identify what peculiarities of language systems and functions are the foundations of translation process. 2. Classify main kinds of translation activity. 3. Research peculiarities of materials. 4. Study specific English terminology required for professional translation. 5. Analyse grammatical and lexical peculiarities of texts. The object of this research is representing manuals for electric devices. The subject of this research is the translation of clippings materials. The paper consists of introduction, two chapters and conclusion. It is also provided with bibliography list. The introduction explains the urgency of the research theme, its theoretical and practical value, it identifies the object, subject, aim and tasks of the work. The first chapter of this research is devoted to the review of theoretical issues of translation, classification of translation and description of certain kinds of translation as well as types of texts being translated. The second chapter investigates terminology, morphological structure of terms (simple, compound, term phrases), it analyses the main approaches of their translation into English (use of equvalents, analogues, calking and transliteration), difficulties related to structure differences of compared languages. The results of the research are submitted in the conclusion of the work.
CHAPTER I. ADEQUACY OF TRANSLATION.
1.1. The theoretical issues of translations.
Translation is the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language and the production, in another language, of an equivalent text that communicates the same message. Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, their idioms and the like. Consequently, as has been recognized at least since the time of the translator Martin Luther, one translates best into the language that one knows best. Traditionally translation has been a human activity, though attempts have been made to computerize or otherwise automate the translation of natural-language texts (machine translation) or to use computers as an aid to translation (computer-assisted translation). [1; 48] Perhaps the most common misconception about translation is that there exists a simple “word-for-word” relation between any two languages, and that translation is therefore a straightforward and mechanical process. On the contrary, historical differences between languages often dictate differences of expression. Hence, source and target texts may differ significantly in length. In addition, translation is always fraught with uncertainties as well as the potential for inadvertent “spilling over” of idioms and usages from one language into the other, producing linguistic hybrids, for example, "Franglais" (French-English), "Spanglish" (Spanish-English) and "Poglish" (Polish-English). [2; 31] The translation of technical texts (manuals, instructions, etc). More specifically, texts that contain a high amount of terminology, that is, words or expressions that are used (almost) only within a specific field, or that describe that field in a great deal of detail. The translation of scientific research papers, abstracts, conference proceedings, and other publications from one language into another. The specialized technical vocabulary used by researchers in each discipline demand that the translator of scientific texts have technical as well as linguistic expertise.
1.2. Development of translation notion in linguistics.
Among multiple problems that modern linguistics studies an important role is played by studying of lingustic aspects of cross-language speaking activity that is called translation or translating activity. Translation is an ancient human's activity. Due to groups of people appeared in the history of mankind had different languages the bilinguals became urgent as they helped communication between groups with different languages. Then writing appeared and along with oral interpreters written translators became urgent as well. They translated different texts of official, religious and business issues. From its very beginning translation played a significant social function allowing people of different languages communicate. Spreading of written translations gave people access to cultural achivements of other people and it made interacting and intersaturation of literatures and cultures feasible. Knowledge of foreign languages allows reading books originally written in those languages [3; 562]. The first theoreticals of translation were the translators themselves who tried to generalize their own experience. Translators of ancient world discussed the issue of proximity degree to the source text. In early Bible translations or translations of other materials that were considered to be sacral and exemplary we can find word for word approach of the source text interpretation that sometimes lead to partly or even full misunderstanding of translations. That is why later translators tried theoretically approve the right of translator for reasonable variety in subject to the source text that meant the interpretation of meaning and the impression of the source text instead of word for word coping [4; 124]. The foundations of scientific theory of translation started to be develped in the middle of XXth century when the problematics of translating appeared to be urgent amongst linguists. Before that period it was thought that translation is not the issue of linguistic range. Translators themselves considered linguistic aspects to be non-significant but totally technical role. The translator was supposed to be fluent both in source and target languages but knowledge of the language was just a preliminary condition and did not cover its meaning. By the middle of XXth century the attitude to translation activity had changed and its systematic studying commenced. During this period the translation of political, commercial, scientific-technical and other texts was of great priority. In those types of translation the features of individual writer's style were not important. Due to this fact more and more attention was paid to the main difficulties of translation related to different structures and functioning of languages in this process. The meaning of language units was emphasized by more precise requirements for the translation. During the translation of such materials it was not enough to get “general” translation as the translation was supposed to provide information transmission in all details up to the meaning of single words. It was required to identify linguistic meaning of this process and what factors identified it and what range they have for information transmitting. [4,5; 37,12]
1.3. Equivalence of translation.
So, there are always two texts during translation, and one of them is initial and is created independently on the second one, and the second text is created on the basis of the first one with the help of some certain operations - the inter language transformations. The first text is called “the text of original"; the second text is called “the text of translation". The language of the text of original is called “ the source language” (SL). The language of the text of translation is called “ the target language” (TL). [10; 97] We need to define the most important thing: why do we consider that the text of translation is equivalent to the text of original? For example, why do we speak that the Russian sentence “Мой брат живет в Лондоне" is the translation of the English sentence “My brother lives in London", while the Russian sentence “Я учусь в университете” is not the translation of the English sentence given above - to say in other words - is not equivalent to it? Obviously, the replacement of the text in one language by the text in the other language is not always the translation. The same idea can be expressed in the other way: the process of translation or the inter language transformation is realised not arbitrary, but with the help of some certain rules, in some strict frameworks. And if we do not observe this rules we have already no rights to speak about translation. To have the rights to be called the translation, the text on TL should contain in it something that the text on SL contains. Or else, while replacing the text on SL by the text on TL it is necessary to keep some certain invariant; the measure of keeping of this invariant defines by itself the measure of the equivalence of the text of translation to the text of original. So, first of all, it is necessary to define what is the invariant in the process of translation, that is in the process of transformation of the text on SL in the text on TL. [10; 176] At the decision of this problem it is necessary to take in account the following. The process of translation directly depends on bilateral character of a mark, as it is called in a mark systems science - semiotics - It means that any mark can be characterised from two sides, or plans the plan of expression or form and the plan of contents or meaning. It is known that the language is a specific mark system, that is why the units of language are also characterised by the presence of two plans, both form and meaning. Thus the main role for translation is played by that fact that different languages contain different units and this units differ from each other in the way of expression, that is by the form, but they are similar in the way of the contents, that is by the meaning. For example, the English word "brother" differs from Russian word “брат" in the way of the expression, but coincides with it in the way of the contents, that is has the same meaning. [11; 312] The English word "brother" has not only the meaning “брат" but also some meanings expressed in Russian language by the words “собрат", “земляк", “коллега”, “приятель" etc. And the Russian word “брат" in the combination “двоюродный брат” corresponds not to the English word "brother", but to the word "cousin", which means not only “двоюродный брат” but also “двоюродная сестра". This phenomenon, namely, the incomplete concurrence of systems of meanings of units in different languages, complicates the process translation. Taking in account this fact we can say, that if we replace the English word "brother" by the Russian word “брат", the process of translation takes place here, as these words, differing in the way of expression, that is by the form, coincide or are equivalent in the way of the contents, that is by the meaning. Actually, however, as the minimal text is the sentence, the process of translation is always realised in the limits of minimum one sentence. And in the sentence, as a rule, the discrepancy between the units of different languages in the way of the contents is eliminated. Proceeding from this, we can give now the following definition of the translation: The translation is the process of transformation of the speech product in one language into the speech product in the other language by keeping the constant plan of the contents, that is the meanings.
About “ the keeping of the constant plan of the contents” it is possible to speak only in the relative, but not in the absolute sense. During the inter language transformation some losses are inevitable, that is the incomplete transference of meanings, expressed by the text of the original, is taking place. [10; 29] So, the text of translation can never be complete and absolute equivalent of the text of original; the task of the interpreter is to make this equivalence as complete as it is possible, that is to achieve the minimum of losses. It means, that one of the tasks of the theory of translation is the establishment of the order of transference of meanings. Taking into account that there are various types of meanings, it is necessary to establish which of them have the advantages during the transference in the process of translation, and which of them it is possible “to endow" so that the semantic losses would be minimal while translating. To finish the consideration of the question about the essence of translation, it is necessary to answer one question yet. This question arises from the definition of translation equivalence based on the keeping of the constant plan of the contents, that is the meaning, given above. It was already marked that the opportunity of keeping of plan of the contents, that is the invariance of meanings while translating, assumes that in the different languages there are some units that are similar in the way of meaning. The divergence in the semantic systems of different languages is a certainty fact and it is the source of numerous difficulties arising before the interpreter in the process of translation. That is why, many researchers consider that the equivalence of the original and the translation is not based on the identity of expressed meanings. From the numerous statements on this theme we shall quote only one, belonging to the English theorist of translation J. Ketford: “ … The opinion that the text on SL and the text on TL “have the same meaning" or that there is “a carry of meaning" while translating, have no bases. From our point of view, the meaning is the property of the certain language. The text on SL have the meaning peculiar to TL; for example, the Russian text has Russian meaning, and the English text, that is the equivalent of it, has the English meaning. [12; 120] For the benefit of translation it is possible to state the following arguments: In the system of meanings of any language the results of human experience are embodied, that is the knowledge that the man receives about the objectively existing reality. In any language, the system of language meanings reflects the whole external world of the man, and his own internal world too, that is the whole practical experience of the collective, speaking the given language, is fixed. As the reality, environmental different language collectives, has much more than common features, than distinguishes, so the meanings of different languages coincide in a much more degree, than they miss. The other thing is that these meanings (the units of sense or “semes') are differently combined, grouped and expressed in different languages: but it concerns already not to the plan of the contents but to the plan of the language expression. The greatest difficulties during translation arise when the situation described in the text on SL is absent in the experience of language collective - the carrier of TL, otherwise, when in the initial text the so-called “realities” are described, that is different subjects and phenomena specific to the given people or the given country. The ability to describe new unfamiliar situations is the integral property of any language; and this property makes what we speak about to be possible. The translation was determined above as the process of transformation of speech product in one language into the speech product in the other language. Thus, the interpreter deals not with the languages as the systems, but with the speech products, that is with the texts. Those semantic divergences, that is in the meanings, which we are talking about, concern, first of all, to systems of different languages; in the speech these divergences very often are neutralised, erased, brought to nothing. The concrete distribution of elementary units of sense (“semes" or semantic units) on separate words, word combinations or sentences of the given text is defined by the numerous and complex factors. And, as a rule, it does not coincide in the text on SL and text on TL. But it concerns not to the plan of the contents, but to the plan of expression and is not the infringement of a principle of semantic equivalence of the texts of original and the text of translation. [15; 65] Last give an example to prove the fact given above. In the story of the known English writer S. Moem “A Casual Affair " we can see the following sentence: " He'd always been so spruce and smart; he was shabby and unwashed and wild-eyed ". This is the Russian variant of this sentence: "Прежде он был таким щеголем, таким элегантным, а теперь бродил по улицам Сингапура грязный, в лохмотьях, с одичалым взглядом. (translation of Litvinova M) On the first sight the Russian text do not seems to be the equivalent to the English one: there are such words as "прежде, а теперь, бродил по улицам Сингапура" in it, which have not the direct conformities in the text of original. But really, the semantic equivalence is available here, though here are no verbal equivalence, of course. The thing is that the Russian words “прежде" and “а теперь” transfer the meanings, which are expressed not by the words, but by the grammatical forms in the English text: the opposition of the forms of the verb "to be" -“had been” and “was” expresses that the first event is taking place before the second one, which has the logical expression through adverbs of time in Russian language. [10; 90] Words “бродил по улицам Сингапура" transfer the semantic information, which the initial English text contains too, but in one of the previous sentences, not in the given sentence (He didn't been the job in Sumatra long and he was back again in Singapore). So, the semantic equivalence is provided not between the separate words and even not between the separate sentences here, but between the whole text on SL and the whole text on TL as a whole. [12; 37] So, the semantic divergences between the languages can not serve as the insuperable obstacle for the translation, by virtue of that circumstance, that the translation deals with the languages not as the abstract systems, but with the concrete speech products (texts). And in their limits there is the complex interlacing and interaction of qualitatively diverse language means being the expressions of meanings - of words, grammatical forms, and "super signments" means, transmitting this or that semantic information together. That semantic equivalence of the texts of the original and the text of translation, which we regard as the necessary condition of the process of translation, exists not between the separate elements of these texts, but between the texts as a whole. And inside the given text the numerous regroupings, rearrangement and redistribution of separate elements are not only allowed, but frequently they are simply inevitable, (" translation transformations "). So, while translating, there is a strict rule - the principle of submission of elements to the whole, of the lowest units to the highest. [16; 176]
1.4. Types of translation.
Though
the basic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation
events, different types of translation can be singled out depending
on the predominant communicative function of the source text or the
form of speech involved in the translation process. Thus we can distinguish
between literary and informative translation, on the one hand, and between
written and oral translation (or interpretation), on the other hand. Literary
translation deals with literary texts, i. e. works of fiction or poetry
whose main function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression
upon the reader. Their communicative value depends, first and foremost,
on their artistic quality and the translator's primary task is to reproduce
this quality in translation. Informative translation is rendering into
the target language non-literary texts, the main purpose of which is
to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader. However,
if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed
as literary or informative only as an approximation. A literary text
may, in fact, include some parts of purely informative character. Contrariwise,
informative translation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving
an aesthetic effect. Within each group further gradations can be made
to bring out more specific problems in literary or informative translation.
[2,7; 34,97] Literary works are known to fall into a number of genres.
Literary translations may be subdivided in the same way, as each genre
calls for a specific arrangement and makes use of specific artistic
means to impress the reader. Translators of prose, poetry or plays have
their own problems. Each of these forms of literary activities comprises
a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize in one or some
of them in accordance with his talents and experience. The particular
tasks inherent in the translation of literary works of each genre are
more literary than linguistic. The great challenge to the translator
is to combine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit. [5,10;
34,49] The translator of a belles-lettres text is expected to make a
careful study of the literary trend the text belongs to, the other works
of the same author, the peculiarities of his individual style and manner
and sn on. This involves both linguistic considerations and skill in
literary criticism. A good literary translator must be a versatile scholar
and a talented writer or poet. A number of subdivisions can be also suggested
for informative translations, though the principles of classification
here are somewhat different. Here we may single out translations of
scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, of official
papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches, political
and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so to speak,
intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressive
and referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal. [13;
21] Translation of scientific and technical materials has a most important
role to play in our age of the revolutionary technical progress. There
is hardly a translator or an interpreter today who has not to deal with
technical matters. Even the "purely" literary translator often
comes across highly technical stuff in works of fiction or even in poetry.
An in-depth theoretical study of the specific features of technical
translation is an urgent task of translation linguistics while training
of technical translators is a major practical problem. In technical translation
the main goal is to identify the situation described in the original.
The predominance of the referential function is a great challenge to
the translator who must have a good command of the technical terms and
a sufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give
an adequate description of the situation even if this is not fully achieved
in the original. The technical translator is also expected to observe
the stylistic requirements of scientific and technical materials to
make text acceptable to the specialist. Some types of texts can be identified
not so much by their positive distinctive features as by the difference
in their functional characteristics in the two languages. English newspaper
reports differ greatly from their Russian counterparts due to the frequent
use of colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases, eye-catching
headlines, etc. [17; 58] When the translator finds in a newspaper text
the headline "Minister bares his teeth on fluoridation" which
just means that this minister has taken a resolute stand on the matter,
he will think twice before referring to the minister's teeth in the
Russian translation. He would rather use a less expressive way of putting
it to avoid infringement upon the accepted norms of the Russian newspaper
style. Apart from technical and newspaper materials it may be expedient
to single out translation of official diplomatic papers as a separate
type of informative translation. These texts make a category of their
own because of the specific requirements to the quality of their translations.
Such translations are often accepted as authentic official texts on
a par with the originals. They are important documents every word of
which must be carefully chosen as a matter of principle. That makes
the translator very particular about every little meaningful element
of the original which he scrupulously reproduces in his translation.
This scrupulous imitation of the original results sometimes in the translator
more readily erring in literality than risking to leave out even an
insignificant element of the original contents.
The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with a lower level of equivalence. [19; 32] There are two main kinds of oral translation - consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutive translation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of it has been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final results depend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. If the segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows the original speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected to translate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer. In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them in mind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter has to take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having been suggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is the integral part of the interpreter's training as are special exercises to develop his memory. [14;107] Sometimes the interpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he will have to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the most important parts of the original and dispensing with the rest. This implies the ability to make a judgement on the relative value of various messages and to generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter must obviously be a good and quickwitted thinker. In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translation while the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with a special radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives the original speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into the microphone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type of translation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoretical and practical nature.
CHAPTER II. USAGE OF LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION.
2.1. The lexico-grammatical problems of transformation.
The
vocabulary of any language is so large and heterogeneous that not any
translator, not even the native speaker can know all the words and distinguishes
all their meanings. A vague knowledge of the text, the deep meaning
hidden under the surface structure obliges the translator to be in constant
contact with dictionaries, because they do translators in estimate service
in understanding the text more clearly. The right choice of the word
for a complete transformation of the meaning of the word in the text
is one of the complicated objectives in the translation process. The
difficulty of this task is conditioned by the complex nature of the
word and its versatile and semantic value. The word as a lexical unit
in English and Russian languages don’t always coincide. Too often
one word may correspond a composite word or a whole word combination
of English. For example: “карусель – merry-go-round” or
may happen vice-versa. Another example: “to stare – пристально
смотреть”. As it’s generally known the word expresses the
notion of a substance or the phenomenon of the reality, the whole complex
of forms and meaning. There are a logical meaning, an emotional meaning
and the named meaning. Very often even English monosemantic word doesn’t
coincide with the usage of the Russian words and as the result it’s
translated into Russian by different words. For example: “a young
child – маленький ребёнок; a young man ––человек;
a young criminal –неопытный преступник; the night
was young – ночь ещё только наступила.” In
searching for the necessary word translator applies usually synonymic
role in the native language. For example: She was very brave about it.
The first two meanings of this word don’t evidently fit the present
case. Therefore, every translator is up to select and enlarges number
of synonyms. The meaning of the word “brave” is likely corresponds
to. – Она очень мужественно перенесла
это.” While choosing the word out of synonymic role, it’s necessary
to take into account not only the shades of the meaning, but also degree
of intensity of meaning. The translator should always apply to the context
to uncover the meaning of the word and suggest adequate translation
in the process. As we have very few absolute synonyms in the language
that raise special objectives for a translator. Apart from that the
synonyms are not always interchangeable: they are sometimes quite non-suitable.
As we mentioned above the synonyms differ by their shade of meaning,
degree of intensity, emotion coloring and affiliation to various layers
of the dictionary. The English language is extremely reach in synonyms
and as we know synonyms are used for strengthening the utterance and
avoid any repetition. Though identical in some cases the grammatical
phenomena of any languages connected and conditioned by the laws of
its development differ mostly from those of other languages which evoke
certain difficulties in the process of translation both in the fields
of morphology and syntax. It is clear that the aim of translation is
not to give a precise reproduction of the grammatical forms of the original.
The aim is to convey the sense of original where the planes of expression
of the Source Language (SL) and the Target Language (TL) do not formally
coincide at all. Grammatical forms play an important role when they
fulfill a certain stylistic function. Brevity, parallel arrangement
and others directly or indirectly influence the sense or aesthetic aspect
of the original, then the translator is obliged to seek for analogical
means in the TL in order to achieve adequacy. Disparity between the
structure of the source and target languages require grammatical and
very often lexical transformations. The disparity in the grammatical
structures of the English and Russian languages may be complete or partial.
Complete non-coincidence is observed when a certain grammatical category
of one language is absent in the other, for example, gerund is a category
inherent to English, but there are also cases when a category is present
in both languages, but they do not fully coincide in content or another
example, the category of number which is present in both of them, but
the use of singular and plural do not always coincide. For example:
“To prevent a thermonuclear war should be the supreme duty of every
person of goodwill. –Не допускать развязывания
термоядерной войны – первейшая обязанность
всех людей доброй воли.” In the following example
we have plural in English but singular in Russian: “Attentions of
the demonstrators against racialism later turned to South Africa House
where most of the ground floor windows were smashed. – Затем
участники демонстрации против расизма
обратили своё внимание на зданиe представительства
Южной Африки, у которого почти все окна
нижнего этажа были разбиты.” Sometimes a grammatical
category of English is broader that of Russian . For example, the Past
Indefinite Tense form of English is broader than the Past Tenses in
Russian. It may correspond to the past tenses of all Russian verbs of
all aspects and voices, therefore is conveyed into Russian in different
ways: 1) “The marchers got within ten yards of their object, and then
the police pushed them back, cutting the demonstration into two”.
2) “As the mounted policemen pushed, there was a crush against
the opposite side of the road and a plate glass window was broken”.
The verb “to push” is encountered in both of these two sentences,
but in both cases the Past Indefinite is translated differently: 1)
“Демонстранты почти подошли к своей
цели, оставалось каких-либо десять ярдов,
но полиция оттеснила их, разделив на две
части. 2) “Когда конная полиция начала
теснить демонстрантов, из-за образования
у противоположного тротуара давки было
разбито зеркальное окно. One reveals those cases
of partial correspondence when the given grammatical categories exist
in both languages, but they correspond not in all their forms, for instance,
let’s take the English participle. There is no perfect form of participle
in Russian and no past participle of intransitive verbs in English.
Thus, all the enumerated (the absence of corresponding forms, partial
correspondence, difference in the character and others) call forth the
necessity of grammatical transformations which are the following: transposition,
replacement, addition and omission. Transposition arises as a result
of difference in the structures of sentences in the SL and the TL. Example:
A general plan was operated by West German reactionaries to rehabilitate
Nazi Criminals. – В Западной Германии реакционерами
проводился в жизнь широкий план реабилитации
фашистских преступников. Here transposition is
also connected with the use of indefinite article with the subject.
But it is very often caused by the subject, especially if it is expressed
by a large group of words or a whole sentence. Example: “A big wave
of workers – skilled and unskilled, men and women, manual and non-manual
for higher wages and equal pay, for shorter hours and a greater participation
in shaping the environment at work has been unleashed in Britain. –В
Англии поднялась мощная волна выступлений
всех групп рабочих – квалифицированных
и неквалифицированных, мужчин и женщин,
работников физического и умственного
труда, требующих повышения заработной
платы и равной оплаты труда, сокращения
рабочего дня и большего участия в деле
улучшения условий работы.” Pure transposition
is rarely met which is also evident from the example above. It is usually
followed by other types of transformation namely by replacement of parts
of speech, by addition of words and lexical replacement. For example:
“It was a common criticism of Faulkner, particularly in Britain,
that he was a writer of unreal nightmares. – Фолкнера
обычно критиковали, особенно в Англии,
за то, что он описывал нереальные кошмары. Besides
the restructuring of the sentence, the translation required the replacement
of the type of the subject and parts of speech: “it was a common criticism
– обычно критиковали; that he was a writer – что
он описывал”. Replacement of the parts of speech is caused
by different reasons: by difference in the type of subjects, by difference
of corresponding part of speech with desired lexical meaning, requirements
of combinability and difference in the usage of words. The above given
example is a good illustration of it. Replacement of the type of subject
here is conditioned by the requirements of combinability. And it must
also be noted that the volume of meaning of the word “writer” as
well as usage is broader than that of Russian “писатель”. As
we have already said replacement of parts of speech is also caused by
pure lexical reasons for example, by the absence of the corresponding
meaning for a word in Russian. For instance: “In a display of loathsome
servility the Foreign Secretary backed the US denials of the bombings
of North Vietnam, speaking in parliament of December 19.” “The English-Russian
Dictionary” edited by V.K.Muller gives the following meanings for
“display” as a noun: 1) “развёртывание перед
глазами, выставлять, показывать (товары
и т.п.), проявлять (храбрость и т.п.)”; 2)
“выставка, выставление себя на показ,
хвастовство”. But none of these meanings correspond the
meaning of “display” in this context. In order to convey its meaning
more exactly and adequately the translator is obliged to appeal to the
meaning of the verb “display”. Prepositional group in a display
can not be conveyed into Russian by a corresponding prepositional group,
therefore, the translator appeals to grammatical and lexical transformation
at the same time. “Выступая в парламенте 19 декабря,
министр иностранных дел проявил отвратительное
низкопоклонство перед Америкой, поддержав
утверждение, что бомбардировки Северного
Вьетнама не имели места. As we see from the given
example, addition and omission are always followed by other types of
transformations. It is also necessary in translation as the omitted
words often turn to be needless in Russian and perceived pleonasms.
For example: “The storm was terrible while it lasted. – Буря
была ужасная.” The subordinate clause “пока она
продолжалась –is quite needless and therefore omitted
in Russian translation. It must be noted that in the process of transformation
there are such methods as replacement of subordination by coordination
and vice versa, breaking and joining up of sentences in translation.
2.2. The
use of translation transformations in the process of translating English
text clippincs.
Actualization of some potential grammatical meanings typical of different language types and verbalization of various conceptual matters as a result of cognitive modeling mechanisms which favour correlation at the lingual or paralingual levels of the languages in questions reflect their more in-depth study and are research objectives for translation theory and practice. Translation as an extremely complicated process involves different pragmatic, psychological, cross-cultural, linguistic and methodological factors, considers interference and transposition processes, structural and grammatical correlation specifying plurilingual conceptual basis, lexical-semantic autonomy [4, 10-13]. Furthermore, there appear interference and transposition processes resulting in isomorphic or allomorphic features of different language types. Besides, while considering peculiarities of translating text clippings and their messages, different types of translation correlations with identical meaning, partial equivalent meaning, hypo-hyperonymic translation equivalents, socio-pragmatic and cross-cultural equivalents are envisaged. Typological analysis of translation transformations in the original and translation text clippings testifies to a specific individual choice of language units at different levels (lexical, morphological, syntactical). They reflect complicated logical and grammatical sequences f avouring the appearing of the original different units of open and closed language layers, their adapting to a language, morphological, syntactic and stylistic means used in the translation process (lexical specification, various types of transformation at different levels, functional transposition, etc.). Translation transformations are analyzed as lexico-semantic, structural and functional adequate means of covering different associate correlative and informative relationships in the original and translated text clippings, fixing results of cognitive activity of a man, accomplishing emotional and aesthetic influence. The objective for a translator is to таке an ample use of translation transformations, whose interpretation does not need only the acknowledgement of interlinking form, semantics, function, and information nucleus of constituents, but also the considering of interlocutors' intention, peculiarities of the "code" they use, Channel of communication. It is a process when a text appears to be unchanged, but the "adjoining" one is being created in another language [1,6]. Outlining various transformations, we treat some units which vary in their grammatical structure and lexical meaning, and are characterized by the same content plane and means of performing identical communicative f unction in the given context [2,3].
Considering lexical, grammatical, and stylistic peculiarities of translating English text clippings, we analyze different transformation means:
1)Changing word order, which results in rearranging the order of words. For example: I but I don't f eel like going into it, if you want to know the truth [14,3];
Та як хочете знати правду, я не маю охоти закопуватись у той мотлох [9,4];
Stradlater kept whistling "Song of India" while he shaved [14, 28]; Голячись, Стредлейтер насвистував "Індіанську пісеньку" [9, 25].
2)Addition as а lexico-grammatical transf ormation resulting in enlarging
the amount of words, phrases, parts of a sentence. They are words of
three language layers, including substance names, process names, primary
and secondary property names, different kinds of replacive morphemes
and function
words. Forexample:
It's terrible [14,18]; Просто жах господній [9,16];
He always looked all right, Stradlater, but for instance... [14, 29];
Вигляд він мав завжди пристойний, цей чортяка Стредлейтер [9,25].
3) Elliptic transformation resulting in elliptical deletion of some words,
phrases, sentence parts, etc. The most frequent words deleted from some
sentence patterns while translating are possessive pronouns, adjectives.
The process takes place while translating from English into Ukrainian
and visa versa as а
result of difference in the structural types of synthetic and analytical
languages. For example:
They'd looked like they had big noses or their ears stuck out [14, 29];
To начебто ніс великуватий, то вуха стирчать, то ще щось [9, 25].
4)Using some
equivalents with partial meaning, hypo-hyperonymic translation equivalents,
contextual equivalents, socio-pragmatic, and cross-cultural equivalents.
They are characterized by generalization, antonymous translation, interpretation
(if the meaning of an English-expression is too
specific or vague, and other lexical means are used while translating
them into the Ukrainian language). For example:
a) antonymous translation:
Take it easy [14, 36]; Ну, бувай [9, 31].
b) interpretation:
...the old bull [14, 15]; ...сім мішків вовни [9,14].
5)Complex transformation which combines two or more transformation types.
Translation of lexis, morphological, syntactical structures has succeeded when their transformation analogues and contextual modifications resume an adequate reaction of the recipient, and parameters of adequacy of translation. There are some parameters of adequacy of translation:
1) parameters of adequacy of transmitting the semantic Information;
2) parameters of adequacy of transmitting the emotional-evaluative information;
3) parameters of adequacy of transmitting the expressive information;
4) parameters of adequacy of transmitting the aesthetic Information.
An ample use of compensation transformation means in translation from English into Ukrainian is of great frequency in fiction. Thus, some elliptic words, phrases, sentences correspond to some correlative means of the Ukrainian language which satisfу parameters of adequacy of translation. While translating some terms, slang (Jargon) lexis there appears a primary task for a translator: to таке a shift in the semantic, expressive, and emotive word meaning very slight, leaving out its stylistic coloring. But if this stylistic coloring is of primary value for the original, then it has a great importance either for the plot or character. Therefore, it should be emphasized in the translation. For example:
I am not going to tell you mу whole goddam autobiography or anything [14, 3];
Та я не збираюсь описувати тут усю свою триклятущу біографію [9,4].
I am just tell you about this madman stuff that happened to me around last Christmas just before I got pretty run-down and had to соте out here and take it easy [14,3];
Я тільки розповім оту ідіотську історію, що сталася зі мною на Різдво - це до того, як я мало не врізав дуба і мене притарабанили сюди, щоб я трохи оклигав [9,4].
We encounter а frequent use of compensation means while rendering into Ukrainian non-standard, grammatically deficient speech, which characterizes a character. For example:
"C'mon, c'mon," -1 said right out [14,7]; "Та швидше, швидше не," - мало не гукав я вголос [9, 7].
"Who-belongs this?"-Ackley said [14, 24]; "Це чиє"? - спитав Еклі [9, 20].
Get'em а second, willya? [14, 25]; Дістань на хвильку, га? [9, 22].
Where'dja get that hat? [14,31]; Де ти допяв таку шапку? [9, 27]
But in the original the use of such means fulfils a very important communicative goal.
One of the types of complex transformations is antonymous translation. Antonymous translation is of ten the best (or if not the only) way of transmitting semantic, structural, and stylistic peculiarities of text clippings:
Take your time - не поспішай [3, 538]; Take it easy - не хвилюйся [3, 538];
Mind your own business - не твоє діло [3, 342]; Tokeepone's head - не розгубитися [3, 551];
То have clean hands in the water — не мати ніякого відношення до якоїсь справи [3,550].
If an English word or a phrase is rendered by means of antonymous translation, used in the original in the negative form, the translation will have an affirmative form:
Don't sit up, I’ll be late [14, 34]; Не чекайте на мене, лягайте спати [9, 34].
I could hardly move ту fingers at all [14, 7];... а пальцями вже й не поворухну [9, 7].
Consequently, an affirmative construction "I could hardly move" in the text of the original is transformed by means of the antonymous translation into the Ukrainian construction: "Вже й не поворухну".
А very frequent use of antonymous translation is encountered while translating parasitological units. In the English language there are many set expressions, the content of which can be rendered (without loss of idiomatic character) only by a contrary notion. For example:
He has a ready tongue - він за словом в кишеню не лізе [3, 552];
No time like the present - лови момент [3,549].
Non-motivated Substitution of any morphological form or a syntactical structure by a functionally inconsistent linguistic form involves the recipient in the inadequate environment (linguistic or extra linguistic), and causes considerable discrepancy in communication.
In the process of translating English text clippings we should also consider specific features of potentially motivated and non-motivated lexis; structural and semantic peculiarities of sentences, combinational and non-combinational textual relations, referential text properties (conventional and non-conventional use of language signs in the texts and their socio-pragmatic value); adequate interpreting of semantic features of language units by means of heterogeneous language structures; lexical-semantic autonomy of text constituents.
Thus,
analyzing different forms of translation transformations we envisaged
such means as inverted word order, addition, elliptic transformation,
equivalent Substitution with partial meaning, hypo-hyperonymic translation
equivalents, socio-pragmatic and cross-cultural equivalents, complex
transformation types. The prospects for future research will cover the
investigation of outer and inner interference and transposition factors,
highlighting isomorphic or allomorphic peculiarities of different language
structures which are either heterogeneous or cognate.
CONCLUSION
The translation is the multifaceted phenomenon and some aspects of it can be the subjects of the research of different sciences. In the frames of the science of translation psychological, literature critical, ethnographical and other points of translation as well as the history of translation in one or other country are being studied. According to the subject of research we use the knowledge of the psychology of translation, the theory of art and literary translation, ethnographical science of translation, historical science of translation and so on. The main place in the modern translation belongs to linguistic translation, which studies the translation as linguistic phenomenon. The different kinds of translation complement each other and strive to detailed description of the activity of the translation. The theory of translation puts forward the following tasks: 1. To open and describe the common linguistic basis of translation, that is to show which peculiarities of linguistic systems and regularities of the language operation are the basis of the translating process, make this process possible and determine its character and borders; 2. To determine the translation as the subject of the linguistic research, to show its difference from the other kinds of linguistic mediation; 3. To work out the basis of classification of kinds of the translating activity; 4. To open the essence of the translating equivalence as the basis of the communicative identity of the original texts and the translation; 5. To work out the common principles and the peculiarities of construction of the peculiar and special translation theories for the different combinations of languages; 6. To work out the common principles of the translation process as actions of a translator of transforming the original text to the translating text; 7. To open the influence on the translating process of pragmatic and social linguistic factors; 8. To determine the idea “the translating norm” and to work out the principles. The translation of texts will give an exact meaning of the source text. Some deviations can be made due to the peculiarities of target language or stylistic issue. It is very important to prevent the loss of meaningful information contained in the source text. It is clear that the aim of translation is not to give a precise reproduction of the grammatical forms of the original. The aim is to convey the sense of original where the planes of expression of the Source Language (SL) and the Target Language (TL) do not formally coincide at all. Grammatical forms play an important role when they fulfill a certain stylistic function.
THE LIST OF LITERATURE
1. Fathy A. Osman. Senior interpreter/translator, IMF, Washington, DC
2. In other words - a course book on translation. Mona Baker, London and New York, 1992.
3. The Craft of Translation, John Biguenet & Rainer Schulte, The University of Chicago Press.
4. Translation features, Basnett-McGuire, New York Publishing house 1980.
5. A course book on Military Translation, Ministry of Defense of the USSR, Moscow 1962.
6. Translation difficulties, T.R. Levitskaya & A.M. Fitterman, «International Relations» Publishing house, Moscow 1976.
7. Difficulties of translation from English into Russian, Zrajevskaya L.M. & Belyaeva, Moscow Publishing House, 1972.
8. Translation and linguistics, Schweitzer A.D.
9. English Grammar, L.S. Barhudarov & D.A. Schteling, Moscow 1965.
10. Exercise book on translation of humanitarian texts, Malchevskaya, Saint Petersburg 1980.
11. America and Russian and the Cold War, Walter LaFeber, 6th Edition, Cornell University 1991.
12. Comparative Politics, Washington State University, 1996.
13. International Conflict Cooperation and Management, Slippery Rock University, Pennsylvania, 2000.
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