Leadership Theory

CONTENTS

     Introduction 

     1.Theoretical aspects of the leadership……………………………….3

           1.1. Leadership Treat Theory…………………………………..…...3

           1.2. Behavioral Leadership Theory…………………………………4

           1.3. Contingency Leadership Theory……………………………….5

           1.4. Transformational Leadership Theory……………………….….6

2.The particularities of the behaviour and contact of the leader……………………………………………………………...….8

     3.The influence of emotions and the charisma…………………...…13 

     Conclusion

     Literature

      INTRODUCTION

     There are a lot of works today, which examine a question of the lesdership. It causes, in turn, many subjective judgements to this problem both on the part of workman, and on the part of leaders. The researchers have developed a lot of leadership styles, some methodical developments appeared inwardly organization in the process of the realization of their activity. But there are such things, which on one hand do not yield to the scientific progress, evolutions of the science of management, but on the other hand, - are constantly developing, opening the new horizons of the study, saving general particularities and principles, formed on length of the ages, in society progress. It refers to the psychological particularities of the contact, nonverbal signs, charisma, and emotions.

     Urgency of the subject lies in that on modern stage of the development of the society some formed leaders forget about psychological aspect of management, following only dictatorial or authoritarian leadership styles, or forget about the purposes of their work. So it is necessary to turn their attention on what the leadership is, for what it serves and what their purpose is. Except this, many of the problems that occur in a organization are the direct result of people failing to communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can cause a good plan to fail. Studying the communication process is important because we coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise through this process. It is the chain of understanding that integrates the members of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side to side.

     The purpose of the work: systematization of the main positions of the psychological management aspects, presentation the importance of the nonverbal aspect of the contact, particularities of the contact inside the organizations, influence of emotions and charisma on the process of group management.

     To achieve these purposes it is necessary to fulfill the following tasks:

• systematize the main lesdership theories;
• to reveal the importance of leadership skill;
• to define the main position of the contact, barriers of the contact;
• to show the influence of the emotions and charisma.

     1. Theoretical aspects of the leadership.

     What is leadership? It seems to be one of those qualities that you know when you see it, but is difficult to describe. There are almost as many definitions as there are commentators. Many people associate leadership with one person leading. Second, where there are leaders there are followers. Third, leaders seem to come to the fore when there is a crisis or special problem. In other words, they often become visible when an innovative response is needed. Fourth, leaders are people who have a clear idea of what they want to achieve and why. Thus, leaders are people who are able to think and act creatively in non-routine situations – and who set out to influence the actions, beliefs and feelings of others. In this sense being a ‘leader’ is personal. It flows from an individual’s qualities and actions. [2]

     Thereby, the word “leadership” can refer to:

• the process of leading;
• those entities that perform one or more acts of leading;
• the ability to affect human behavior so as to accomplish a mission designated by the leader.

     In the literature about the leadership there are four main generations of theory:

1. Trait theories.
2. Behavioural theories.
3. Contingency theories.
4. Transformational theories.

     1.1. Leadership Trait Theory

     In the early 1900s, an organized approach to studying leadership began. The early studies were based on the assumption that leaders are born, not made. It was later called the "great man" theory of leadership. Researchers wanted to identify a set of characteristics or traits that distinguished leaders from followers or effective from ineffective leaders. Leadership trait theory assumes that there are distinctive physical and psychological characteristics accounting for leadership effectiveness. Researchers analyzed traits, or qualities, such as appearance, aggressiveness, self-reliance, persuasiveness, and dominance in an effort to identify a set of traits that all successful leaders possessed. The list of traits was to be used as a prerequisite for promotion of candidates to leadership positions. Only candidates possessing all the identified traits were to be given leadership positions. In 70 years, over 300 trait studies were conducted. However, no one has come up with a universal list of traits that all successful leaders possess.

     Probably the most widely publicized trait theory study was conducted by Edwin Ghiselli. He identified the following six traits, in order of importance, as being significant traits for effective leadership:

     1. Supervisory ability. 

     2. Need for occupational achievement.

     3. Intelligence.

     4. Decisiveness.

     5. Self-assurance.

     6. Initiative. [1] 

     1.2. Behavioral Leadership Theory

     By the late 1940s, most of the leadership research had changed from trait theory and had focused on what the leader did. In the continuing quest to find the one best leadership style in all situations, studies attempted to identify the differences in the behavior of effective leaders versus ineffective leaders. Behavioral leadership theories assume that there are distinctive styles that effective leaders use consistently.

     Douglas McGregor developed a philosophical view of humankind with his Theory X and Theory Y, which are two opposing perceptions about how people view human behavior at work and organizational life. McGregor felt that companies followed either one or the other approach:

     Theory X:

- People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible;

- People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to get them to achieve the organization objectives;

- People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little or no ambition;

- People seek security above all else.

     Note that with Theory X assumptions, management’s role is to coerce and control emploees.

Theory Y:

- Work is as natural as play and rest;

- People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the objectives;

- Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement;

- People learn to accept and seek responsibility;

- Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the population. People are capable of using these abilities to solve an organizational problem;

- People have potential.

     Note that with Theory Y assumptions, management’s role is to develop the potential in employees and help them to release that potential towards common goals.

     Theory X is the view that traditional management has taken towards the work force. Many organizations are now taking the enlightened view of Theory Y. A boss can be viewed as taking the Theory X approach, while a leader takes the  
Theory Y. [3] 

     1.3. Contingency Leadership Theory

     Both the trait and behavioral leadership theories were attempts to find the one best leadership style in all situations. In the late 1960s, it became apparent that there is no one best leadership style in all situations. Contingency leadership theories assume that the appropriate leadership style varies from situation to situation.

     In 1951, Fred E. Fiedler began to develop this theory. Contingency leadership theory is Fiedler’s model used to determine if one’s leadership style is Cask or relationship oriented, and if the situation matches the leader’s style. If there is no match, Fiedler recommends change the situation, rather their leadership styles. [1] 

     1.4. Transformational Leadership Theory

     There are different styles of leadership. The leader’s style affects the leader’s behavior. Leadership, although mediated by a host of intervening variables, does have a causal impact on performance. It is difficult to demonstrate the direct relationship between performance and leadership because of the number of variables. Research indicates that leadership can make a difference in performance, though it does not always do so. The leader’s behavior can have a positive or negative impact on others’ performance. Truly outstanding leaders tend to elicit highly effective performance from others. These outstanding leaders are called transformational leaders.[2]

     There are four major factors in leadership:

     Follower. Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a new hire requires more supervision than an experienced employee. A person who lacks motivation requires a different approach than the one with a high degree of motivation. The fundamental starting point for every leader is having a good understanding of human nature, such as needs, emotions and motivation.

     Leader. Each leader must have an honest understanding of who he is, what he knows, and what he can do. It is the follower, not the leader who determines if the leader is successful. If they do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they will be uninspired.

     Communication. A leader leads through two-way communication. Much of it is nonverbal. What and how he or she communicates either builds or harms the relationship between the leader and the employees.

     Situation. All people are different. What they do in one situation will not always work in another. Each leader must use his or her judgment to decide the best course of action and the leadership style needed for each situation.[4]

     Business has come to realize that a motivated and satisfied work force can improve the bottom line. What employees want most is job satisfaction. According to a leadership study of more than 25,000 employees, some 69 percent of employee job satisfaction stems from the leadership skills of the employee's manager. Success leads to job satisfaction. Employees want to succeed, but often they do not. The main reason for employee failure is poor leadership.

     With the global trend towards total quality management (TQM) and self-directed work teams, strong leadership is needed. Organizations are recruiting employees with good communication skills and leadership abilities with a focus on collaboration and teamwork. Leadership is needed for ongoing improvement of quality and customer satisfaction. However, with teamwork, leadership ability is important to everyone in the organization, not just managers. The definition of leadership does not suggest that influencing employees is the task of manager alone; employees influence other employees. Anyone can be a leader within any group/department, and everyone in a self-directed work team is expected to be a leader. Part of team training includes leadership skills development.[1] 

     2. The particularities of the behaviour and contact of the leader.

     Communication is one of the most main leadership’s factors, that means that it requires detailed study.

     The communication process consists of the following parts:

• Thought: first, information exists in the mind of the sender. This can be a concept, idea, information, or feeling.
• Encoding: next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols.
• Decoding: lastly, the receiver translates the words or symbols into a concept or information that he or she can understand.

     During the transmitting of the message, two processes will be received by the receiver: content and context.

     Content is the actual words or symbols of the message which is known as language - the spoken and written words combined into phrases that make grammatical and semantic sense. We all use and interpret the meanings of words differently, so even simple messages can be misunderstood. And many words have different meanings to confuse the issue even more.

     Context is the way the message is delivered and is known as Paralanguage - it includes the tone of voice, the look in the sender's eye's, body language, hand gestures, and state of emotions (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence, etc.) that can be detected. Although paralanguage or context often causes messages to be misunderstood as we believe that we see more than we hear; they are powerful communicators that help us to understand each other. Indeed, we often trust the accuracy of nonverbal behaviors more than verbal behaviors.

     Some leaders think they have communicated once they told someone to do something, "I don't know why it did not get done...I told Jim to it." More than likely, Jim misunderstood the message. A message has not been communicated unless it is understood by the receiver. How do you know it has been properly received? By two-way communication or feedback. This feedback tells the sender that the receiver has understood the message, its level of importance, and what must be done with it. Communication is an exchange, not just a “giving”, as all parties must participate to complete the information exchange.

     When speaking or trying to explain something, ask the listeners if they are following you. Ensure the receiver has a chance to comment or ask questions. Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes - consider the feelings of the receiver. Be clear about what you say. Look at the receiver. Make sure your words match your tone and body language (Nonverbal Behaviors). Vary your tone and pace. Do not be vague, but on the other hand, do not complicate what you are saying with too much detail. Do not ignore signs of confusion. [5]

     Anything that prevents understanding of the message is a barrier to communication. Many physical and psychological barriers exist:

- Culture, background, and bias - We allow our past experiences to change the meaning of the message. Our culture, background, and bias can be good as they allow us use to our past experiences to understand something new, it is when they change the meaning of the message then they interfere with the communication process.

- Noise - Equipment or environmental noise impede clear communication. The sender and the receiver must both be able to concentrate on the messages being sent to each other.

- Ourselves - Focusing on ourselves, rather than the other person can lead to confusion and conflict. The "Me Generation" is out when it comes to effective communication. Some of the factors that cause this are defensiveness (we feel someone is attacking us), superiority (we feel we know more that the other), and ego (we feel we are the center of the activity).

- Perception - If we feel the person is talking too fast, not fluently, does not articulate clearly, etc., we may dismiss the person. Also our preconceived attitudes affect our ability to listen. We listen uncritically to persons of high status and dismiss those of low status.

- Message - Distractions happen when we focus on the facts rather than the idea. Our educational institutions reinforce this with tests and questions. Semantic distractions occur when a word is used differently than you prefer. For example, the word chairman instead of chairperson, may cause you to focus on the word and not the message.

- Environment - Bright lights, an attractive person, unusual sights, or any other stimulus provides a potential distraction.

- Smothering - We take it for granted that the impulse to send useful information is automatic. Not true! Too often we believe that certain information has no value to others or they are already aware of the facts.

- Stress - People do not see things the same way when under stress. What we see and believe at a given moment is influenced by our psychological frames of references - our beliefs, values, knowledge, experiences, and goals.

     Hearing and listening are not the same thing. Hearing is the act of perceiving sound. It is involuntary and simply refers to the reception of oral stimuli. Listening is a selective activity which involves the reception and the interpretation of oral stimuli. It involves decoding the sound into meaning.

     Listening is divided into two main categories: passive and active. Passive listening is a little more that hearing. People speak at 100 to 175 words per minute, but they can listen intelligently at 600 to 800 words per minute (WPM). Since only a part of our mind is paying attention, it is easy to go into mind drift - thinking about other things while listening to someone. The cure for this is active listening - which involves listening with a purpose. It may be to gain information, obtain directions, understand others, solve problems, share interest, see how another person feels, show support, etc. It takes the same amount or more energy than speaking. It requires the receiver to hear the various messages, understand the meaning, and then verify the meaning by offering feedback. [5]

     The purpose of feedback is to change and alter messages so the intention of the original communicator is understood by the second communicator. It includes verbal and nonverbal responses to another person's message.

     Providing feedback is accomplished by paraphrasing the words of the sender. Restate the sender's feelings or ideas in your own words, rather than repeating their words. Your words should be saying, "This is what I understand your feelings to be, am I correct?" It does not only include verbal responses, but also nonverbal ones. Nodding your head or squeezing their hand to show agreement, dipping your eyebrows shows you don't quite understand the meaning of their last phrase, or sucking air in deeply and blowing it hard shows that you are also exasperated with the situation.

     The five main categories of feedback are presented below:

- Evaluative: Making a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the other person's statement.

- Interpretive: Paraphrasing - attempting to explain what the other person's statement means.

- Supportive: Attempting to assist or bolster the other communicator.

- Probing: Attempting to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point.

- Understanding: Attempting to discover completely what the other communicator means by her statements.[5]

     Nonverbal Behaviors of Communication

     To deliver the full impact of a message, the leader must use nonverbal behaviors to raise the channel of interpersonal communication:

- Eye contact: This helps to regulate the flow of communication. It signals interest in others and increases the speaker's credibility. People who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth, and credibility.

- Facial Expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, and liking. So, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and people will react favorably. They will be more comfortable around you and will want to listen more.

- Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking you may be perceived as boring and stiff. A lively speaking style captures the listener's attention, makes the conversation more interesting, and facilitates understanding.

- Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you talk and move. Standing erect and leaning forward communicates to listeners that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Interpersonal closeness results when you and the listener face each other. Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided as it communicates disinterest.

- Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance are: rocking, leg swinging, tapping, and gaze aversion.

- Vocal: Speaking can signal nonverbal communication when you include such vocal elements as: tone, pitch, rhythm, timbre, loudness, and inflection. For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms of many speakers is that they speak in a monotone voice. Listeners perceive this type of speaker as boring and dull.[5]

3. The influence of emotions and the charisma

     In the mid 1960s, Paul Ekman studied emotions and discovered six facial expressions that almost everyone recognizes world-wide: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, and surprise. Although they were controversial at first, he was booed off the stage when he first presented it to a group of anthropologists and later called a fascist and a racist, they are now widely accepted. One of the controversies still lingering is the amount of context needed to interpret them. For example, if someone reports to me that they have this great ideal that they would like to implement, and I say that would be great, but I look on them with a frown, is it possible that I could be thinking about something else? The trouble with these extra signals is that we do not always have the full context. What if the person emailed me and I replied great (while frowning). Would it evoke the same response?

     During the communicational process leaders must trust their instincts. Most emotions are difficult to imitate. For example, when you are truly happy, the muscles used for smiling are controlled by the limbic system and others, which are not under voluntary control. When you force a smile, a different part of the brain is used -- the cerebral cortex (under voluntary control), hence different muscles are used. This is why a clerk, who might not have any real interest in you, has a "fake" look when he forces a smile.

     Of course, some actors learn to control all of their face muscles, while others draw on a past emotional experience to produce the emotional state they want. But this is not an easy trick to pull off all the time. There is a good reason for this -- part of our emotions evolved to deal with other people and our empathic nature.

     If these emotions could easily be faked, they would do more harm than good. So our emotions not only guide our decisions, they can also communicated to others to help them in their decisions -- of course their emotions will be the ultimate guide, but the emotions they discover in others becomes part of their knowledge base.

     We often hear that the content of a message is composed of:

• 55% of the content from the visual component
• 38% from the auditory component
• 7% from language

     However, the above percentages only apply in a very narrow context. A researcher named Mehrabian was interested in where people get information about a speaker's general attitude it (positive, neutral, or negative), towards the person the speaker is addressing in situations where the facial expression, the tone, and the words might be sending conflicting signals.

     Thus, he designed a couple of experiments. In one, Mehrabian and Ferris (1967) researched the interaction of speech, facial expressions, and tone. Three different speakers were instructed to say "maybe" with three different attitudes towards their listener (positive, neutral, or negative). Next, photographs of the faces of three female models were taken as they attempted to convey the emotions of like, neutrality, and dislike.

     Test groups were then instructed to listen to the various renditions of the word "maybe," with the pictures of the models, and were asked to rate the attitude of the speaker. Note that the emotion and tone were often mixed, such as a facial expression showing dislike, with the word "maybe" spoken in a positive tone.

     Significant effects of facial expression and tone were found in that the study suggested that the combined effect of simultaneous verbal, vocal and facial attitude communications is a weighted sum of their independent effects with the coefficients of .07, .38, and .55, respectively.

     Mehrabian and Ferris also wrote about a deep limitation to their research: "These findings regarding the relative contribution of the tonal component of a verbal message can be safely extended only to communication situations in which no additional information about the communicator-addressee relationship is available." Thus, what can be concluded is that when people communicate, listeners derive information about the speaker's attitudes towards the listener from visual, tonal, and verbal cues; yet the percentage derived can vary greatly depending upon a number of other factors, such as actions, context of the communication, and how well they know that person. [5]

     It is important to look at the question of charisma. It is so much a part of how we look at leadership - but is such a difficult quality to tie down. Charisma is, literally, a gift of grace or of God. Max Weber, more than anyone, brought this idea into the realm of leadership. He used ‘charisma’ to talk about self-appointed leaders who are followed by those in distress. Such leaders gain influence because they are seen as having special talents or gifts that can help people escape the pain they are in.

     When thinking about charisma we often look to the qualities of particular individuals - their skills, personality and presence. But this is only one side of things. We need to explore the situations in which charisma arises. When strong feelings of distress are around there does seem to be a tendency to turn to figures who seem to have answers. To make our lives easier we may want to put the burden of finding and making solutions on someone else. In this way we help to make the role for ‘charismatic leaders’ to step into. They in turn will seek to convince us of their special gifts and of their solution to the crisis or problem. When these things come together something very powerful can happen. It doesn’t necessarily mean that the problem is dealt with - but we can come to believe it is. Regarding such leaders with awe, perhaps being inspired in different ways by them, we can begin to feel safer and directed. This can be a great resource. Someone like Martin Luther King used the belief that people had in him to take forward civil rights in the United States. He was able to contain a lot of the stress his supporters felt and give hope of renewal. He articulated a vision of what was possible and worked with people to develop strategies. But there are also considerable dangers.

     Charisma involves dependency. It can mean giving up our responsibilities. Sadly, it is all too easy to let others who seem to know what they are doing get on with difficult matters. By placing people on a pedestal the distance between ‘us’ and ‘them’ widens. They seem so much more able or in control. Rather than facing up to situations, and making our own solutions, we remain followers (and are often encouraged to do so). There may well come a point when the lie implicit in this confronts us. Just as we turned to charismatic leaders, we can turn against them. It could be we recognize that the ‘solution’ we signed up to has not made things better. It might be that some scandal or incident reveals the leader in what we see as a bad light. Whatever, we can end up blaming, and even destroying, the leader. Unfortunately, we may simply turn to another rather than looking to our own capacities.[2] 
 
 

      CONCLUSION

     Having researched the question of the contacts in the leader’s activity, I understood that skills of the clever contact are important not only for leaders, but also for others subjects of public activity since in any public or business process such things as correlation, cooperation and support are important. But, certainly, for the leader this question has a special meaning since in any event they set an example both in the sense of behaviour, and in the sense of the solving different contradictions and problems concerning the organization or team.

     As we have already defined, the word “leadership” can mean the process of leading, those entities that perform one or more acts of leading or the ability to affect human behavior to accomplish a mission designated by the leader.

     One of the most important leadership factors is communication, that’s why it requires more detailed study. During the contact, two processes will be received by the receiver: content and context.

     During the communicational process there is a lot of things that prevent understanding – physical and psychological barriers.

     The purpose of feedback is to change and alter messages so the intention of the original communicator is understood by the second communicator. It includes verbal and nonverbal responses to another person's message. To deliver the full impact of a message, the leader must use nonverbal behaviors to widen the channel of interpersonal communication.

The emotions and charisma have a significant importance in the process of the contact, which in different situations can define the further move of an event. So, it is necessary for the truly leader to learn to cope with them, use them to achieve their purposes. Herewith, they must not to forget about the power of the emotions and the charisma. It is necessary to remember that their misapplication, direction them at the wrong riverbed can call the undesirable consequences for subordinated and for organization as a whole.

LITERATURE

1. Lussier, Robert N. Human relations in organization: a skill-building approach/ Robert N. Lussier. – 3rd ed. – 1996. The McGraw – Hill Companies, Inc. – P. 206-231;
2. www.infed.org
3. www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/leader/leadhb.html
4. www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/leader/leadcon.html
5. www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/leader/leadcom.html