Language and Means of Persuasion
Министерство Образования Московской области
ГОУ ВПО МО
МОСКОВСКИЙ
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ОБЛОСТНОЙ
Кафедра
английского языка
Курсовая
работа
Advertising:
Language
and Means of Persuasion
Студентки 4 курса
Факультета иностранных языков,
Группы АН 42(2)
Киткаеваой
Ольги Леонидовны
Научный руководитель:
Макаренко
Анна Александровна
Коломна
2011
Content
Introduction
- The Stylistics of advertising
- Morphology
- Syntax
- Rhetorical devices
- Advertising headlines
- Headline. Definition and Concept
- Stylistic Features of Headlines
- Basic techniques of ads persuasion
Conclusions
Bibliography
Introduction
With the development of the technology and the massive diversity of the mass media, advertising influences the daily life of every person. Whatever the forms advertising takes, language is the main carrier of the message. Advertising language is very different from common language. It is a style of immediate impact and quick persuasion. It has its own features in morphology, syntax, and rhetorical devices. For a rhetorical device appeals to the imagination and makes the speech or writing interesting and appealing, advertisers often use various rhetorical devices to persuade the readers to buy different products.
The wide use of advertising has created a special style of English – advertising English whose unique characteristics, simple language and important attraction makes it different from other kinds of languages.
In order to
send information, advertising English must be vivid, usual, emotional,
and attractive. In what follows, we will analyze some features
of advertising and the way in which morphology, syntax and rhetorical
devices are used in English advertisements in order to convey the message
to the buyer.
- THE STYLISTICS OF ADVERTISING
A rhetorical figure is defined as an artful arrangement of words or meanings designed to produce a specific effect on an audience (e.g., metaphor, alliteration). Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of discovering all the available means of persuasion in any given situation”. [Corbett, 1990:3] This definition suggests the idea that there is a set of formal devices capable of achieving certain effects, and that in any given situation some of these devices will be applicable and others not. Therefore, rhetoric tries to understand what works in the area of persuasive communication.
Rhetorical figures are very common in the headlines of contemporary magazine and newspaper advertising throughout the world. It means that these figures can be found across a variety of audiences, magazines, newspapers, product categories, and message strategies.
Cortland L. Bouvee defines advertising as “the non-personal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through the various media.”[ Bovee & Arens 1992:7] Nowadays, with the development of the technology and of the mass media, advertising has influenced people pervasively in their daily life. However, whatever the promotional strategies advertising takes, language is the main carrier of message all along, as The Language of Advertising, by Vestergaard & Schroder, says, “Advertising takes many forms, but in most of them language is of crucial importance.”[Vestergaard, Schroder, 1985:140] Advertising language is a style of immediate impact and rapid persuasion. The use of English in advertising is a global phenomenon. As Ingrid Piller points out,“English is the most frequently used language in advertising messages in non-Englishspeaking countries (besides the local language)”.[ Piller, 2003:175]
American Marketing Manager’s Handbook points out that an advertisement should have four functions: AIDA, which represent four words - Attention, Interest, Desire, Action.
1. Attention - a good advertisement should attract the consumer to direct their attention to the product of it.
2. Interest - the introduction and publicity of an advertisement should arouse consumers’ great interest.
3. Desire - the publicity of advertising should stimulate consumers’ desire to buy the product, and make them realize that this product is just what they want.
4. Action -
the advertising makes consumer to response to the advertising information
and evoke them to take the action of purchasing.
1.1. Morphology in Advertising
The function of advertising is to provide information, attract consumer, and promise quality. Therefore, advertisement must contain impelling language, and for this it must use popular and oral language, easy to understand and memorize.
1. Simple and formal language
For example:“I couldn’t believe it, until I tried it!”, “I’m impressed! I’m really impressed!”, “I love it!”, “You’ve gotta try it!”. The former is an advertisement of a microwave oven. The words in it are very simple and oral. It uses the slang “gotta”, which means “got to” in American English, to give an impression that this advertisement comes from the real life.
- Misspelling and Coinage
In some of advertisements, there are some words misspelled on purpose, or some suffixes or prefixes added to the common words. Although the new words still keep the original meanings, they are quite different from the original words in spelling, which will make the advertisement more interesting and attractive.
e.g. First of all, because now Yoplait is thicker. Second of all, because it’s creamier. Third of all, because it’s still 100% natural and really very good for you. Fourth of all, because to me Yoplait tastes better than all the other Yogurts. And fifth of all, because…well, just because …” [http://www.yoplait.com/]
In addition, some prefixes or suffixes like “super-”, “ex-”, “-er”, “-est” …etc, are often used to stress the high quality of the product.
- Loanwords
The most frequently used loanwords are French and Spanish.
e.g. Perrier…with
added je ne sais quoi. [http://www.perrier.com/EN/
The meaning of je ne sais quoi is “I don’t know what”. The purpose to use this simple French is to show the French flavor of this drink. The loanwords in some advertisement are good methods to express the exoticism of the products.
e.g. Experience
Fiesta through the eyes of real people.[http://www.
4. Use of verbs
The most frequently used verbs and phrasal verbs are: try, ask, get, take, let, send for, use, call, make, come on, hurry, see, give, come, remember, discover, serve, introduce, choose, and look for. It has been noticed that these verbs are particularly
used in beauty industry advertisements.
e.g. Our eye
shadows, liners, brow products and mascaras will get you
gorgeous in a glance.[ http://www.maybelline.com/
e.g. Moisture
Wear Make-up. It gives life to the look and feel of your skin. Moisturewear
Blush. It brings radiance to the look of your skin [http://www.covergirl.com/
Good look and young skin are always the things that a women pursue. The use of the verb give will make this product end up with big sale. Similarly, the word bring is also very appropriate. Radiance of skin is the thing that almost every woman wants and needs.
- Use of Adjectives
The purpose of advertising is to publicize products, therefore it is necessary to describe many aspects of the product such as size, color, nature, and quality. During this process, adjective plays a vital role. The most frequently used adjectives are: new, crisp, good/better/best, fine, free, big, fresh, great, delicious, real, full, sure, pure, easy, bright, clean, extra, safe, special, rich.
e.g. Light.Crisp.Refreshing. [http://www.pepsi.com/]
e.g. It releases a fresh
layer of microlight makeup for each application, allowing you to achieve
a look of pure perfection that’s skin brightening, non-drying,
and comfortable to wear every time. [http://shop.elizabetharden.
1.2. Syntax in Advertising
1. Simple sentences
It will get better effect to use simple sentences than compound sentences, because the readers will lose interest in reading complex sentences.
e.g. Maybe
she’s born with it. Maybe it’s Maybelline.[http://www.
2. Interrogative sentences and imperative sentences
Interrogative sentences are quick and effective to get the readers’ response.
e.g. Do you
want the good news or the good news? First the good news: use head &
shoulders regularly and you can have 100% flake free hair. And the good
news? Well, head & shoulders is also a great way to achieve beautiful-looking
hair that feels soft, silky and manageable.[ http://www.headandshoulders.
The imperative sentences have a meaning of claiming, calling and commanding, similarly the goal of advertising is to persuade consumers to buy a product or service.
e.g. Run with
us! or Just do it! [http://nikerunning.nike.com/
e.g. Join us in sharing the simple pleasures in life that motivate and inspire you.
[ http://www.pepsi.com/]
- Minor Clause
Minor clause contains simple elements emphasizing the key words. It could not only reduce the length and cost, but also disseminate information more effectively.
e.g. Goodyear.
We discover, you explore. [http://eu.goodyear.com/uk_en/
1.3. Rhetorical Devices Used in English Advertising
Rhetorical devices are used to make the thought more striking and effective. A fresh rhetorical device appeals to the imagination, creates mental pictures and makes the speech or writing impressive and interesting. Due to this, advertisers often use various rhetorical devices to increase the readability and appeal of an advertisement and to get consumers’ interest of buying the product.
1. Personification - Personification is a figure of speech in which a thing or abstraction is represented as a person .The use of personification in advertising will endow the product with human emotion, and will make them amicable to consumers.
e.g. Kleenex
says bless you.[ http://www2.kleenex.com/USA/
e.g. Cottonelle.
Looking out for the family. [http://www.cottonelle.com/
2. Simile and Metaphor - Simile is a figure of speech comparing
two unlike things, often introduced with the words “like”,
“as”, or “than”. [http://www.merriam-webster.
e.g. Lightweight,
extra caring formula for dry and damaged hair. Power hold and a soft
touch like Cashmere. [http://www.schwarzkopf-
Metaphor is
a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting
one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a
similarity or analogy between them. [http://www.merriam-webster.
e.g. Go for the Gold. The brightest
star in electronics. [http://www.tesoon.com/
3. Pun - Pun is a play on words, or the usually humorous use of a word in such a way as to suggest two or more of its meanings or the meaning of another word similar in sound
e.g. American
Home has an edifice complex. [http://www.americanhome.com/
e.g. The more we progress, the better you advance.
[ http://www.michelin.co.uk/
4. Repetition-In some advertisements, repetition is used to stress certain information.
e.g. Designed to test limits, designed to be noticed – Bulova
[http://www.bulova.com/brands/
5. Rhyming- One of the best techniques for bringing in the brand name is to make the slogan rhyme with it. An ad slogan is better if it reflects the brand’s personality. By this kind of rhyming, the brand name is highlighted.
e.g.The flavour of a Quaver is never known to waver.
[ http://www.adslogans.co.uk/
e.g.It’s the Viakal fizz that does the bizz! [Idem, ibid.]
6. Alliteration - Alliteration can help the slogans achieve the strong beating rhythm needed to make it a repeatable sentence.
e.g. Fila: Functional... Fashionable... Formidable... [Idem, ibid.]
2. Advertising Headlines
A complete written advertisement (newspaper, magazine) is usually made up of a headline, body copy, slogan, illustrations and colors, trademark, and brand name. These elements are named visual elements. Another kind of elements - audio elements - are advertising commentary, advertising music and advertising sounds. In these elements, headline, body copy and slogan are the most important elements in an advertisement.
2.1. Headline. Definition and Concept
Headline is the theme and centre of advertisement. It is usually in the most conspicuous position of advertisement to attract the attention of consumers. A headline functions as the main title of the text, often written in a larger font than the rest of the text. According to Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary, a subheading can be defined as a secondary title usually placed under the headline which gives additional information on both the headline and the accompanying text.[Cf. Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary, 2006] Leigh states that a headline’s importance in a text (in his case, print advertisements) is based on their function as a slogan to the entire text and as an attraction to the reader.[ Cf. Leigh, 2008:17]
Headlines are used in various sorts of texts, ranging from newspaper articles to essays, academic theses, advertisements and even pictures. The position of the headline, according to Iarovici et al. is usually in front of the text, and its emphasis is often done by large and visible fonts, [Iarovici, Amel, 1989:441] therefore making it the window to the following text and thus important. Iarovici et al. argue that a headline cannot stand alone, and would not even work by itself, but always needs to be attached to a text.[ Idem, ibid.] As Leigh argues, headlines can be analysed from very different points of view. [Leigh, 2008:17]
According to Iarovici et al., a headline has two functions, a semantic function and a pragmatic function.[ Iarovici et al., 1989:442] The former means that a headline tells the reader something about the following text, and the latter that the task of a headline is to form a connection between the author and the reader. The semantic function is made visible through the associations to the subject in the headline and the pragmatic function through rhetoric means and thus the linguistic features of the headline.[ Idem, p.445.]The author shows his appreciation of the reader’s capacity to understand and notice linguistic features by using different linguistic methods to enhance the effect of the headline, and this forms the notion of shared knowledge, as Iarovici et al. state [Idem, p.444.] Lennon states that headlines in newspapers and magazines are not usually written by the author of the accompanying text, but instead most publications have a copy editor who is in charge of the headlines in particular. Lennon also argues that this can mean that as the responsibility of selling the texts to the audience is on one person, the quality and inventiveness of the headlines might be in jeopardy.[ Lennon, 2004:80]
2.2. Stylistic Features of Headlines
1. Conciseness – The ideal headline is considered to be formed of five to eight words. Due to the fact that an entire idea or thought must be conveyed in those few words, headlines are often elliptical or violate grammatical rules.
2. Direct address – A headline must be customer specific.
3. Nominal or block style - If a headline contains 5 to 10 words and it is supposed to express a valid idea with these limited resources, the writers have to be economical.
According to Sternkopf, “function words are an unnecessary burden, because they are semantically empty. The only frequently used function words are the pronouns you and I. [Sternkopf, 2005:237] A headline should contain verbs expressing actions and nouns conveying properties, ideas, content.
4.
Active and positive approach – Headlines should contain
active constructions. Passive and negations should be avoided because
they are often misinterpreted. The recipient perceives the active, the
positive, the first semantic level of the meaning of a word.
- Basic techniques of ads persuasion
A person unaware of advertising's claim on him or her is precisely the one most defenseless against the adwriter's attack. Advertisers delight in an audience which believes ads to be harmless nonsense, for such an audience is rendered defenseless by its belief that there is no attack taking place. The purpose of a classroom study of advertising is to raise the level of awareness about the persuasive techniques used in ads. One way to do this is to analyze ads in microscopic detail. Ads can be studied to detect their psychological hooks, they can be used to gauge values and hidden desires of the common person, they can be studied for their use of symbols, color, and imagery. But perhaps the simplest and most direct way to study ads is through an analysis of the language of the advertising claim. The "claim" is the verbal or print part of an ad that makes some claim of superiority for the product being advertised. After studying claims, students should be able to recognize those that are misleading and accept as useful information those that are true. A few of these claims are downright lies, some are honest statements about a truly superior product, but most fit into the category of neither bold lies nor helpful consumer information. They balance on the narrow line between truth and falsehood by a careful choice of words.
The reason so many ad claims fall into this category of pseudo-information is that they are applied to parity products, products in which all or most of the brands available are nearly identical. Since no one superior product exists, advertising is used to create the illusion of superiority. The largest advertising budgets are devoted to parity products such as gasoline, cigarettes, beer and soft drinks, soaps, and various headache and cold remedies.
The first rule of parity involves the Alice in Wonderlandish use of the words "better" and "best." In parity claims, "better" means "best" and "best" means "equal to." If all the brands are identical, they must all be equally good, the legal minds have decided. So "best" means that the product is as good as the other superior products in its category. When Bing Crosby declares Minute Maid Orange Juice "the best there is" he means it is as good as the other orange juices you can buy.
The word "better" has been legally interpreted to be a comparative and therefore becomes a clear claim of superiority. Bing could not have said that Minute Maid is "better than any other orange juice." "Better" is a claim of superiority. The only time "better" can be used is when a product does indeed have superiority over other products in its category or when the better is used to compare the product with something other than competing brands. An orange juice could therefore claim to be "better than a vitamin pill," or even "the better breakfast drink."
The second rule of advertising claims is simply that if any product is truly superior, the ad will say so very clearly and will offer some kind of convincing evidence of the superiority. If an ad hedges the least bit about a product's advantage over the competition you can strongly suspect it is not superior--may be equal to but not better. You will never hear a gasoline company say "we will give you four miles per gallon more in your care than any other brand." They would love to make such a claim, but it would not be true. Gasoline is a parity product, and, in spite of some very clever and deceptive ads of a few years ago, no one has yet claimed one brand of gasoline better than any other brand.
To create the
necessary illusion of superiority, advertisers usually resort to one
or more of the following ten basic techniques. Each is common and easy
to identify.
1. THE WEASEL CLAIM
A weasel word is a modifier that practically negates the claim that follows. The expression "weasel word" is aptly named after the egg-eating habits of weasels. A weasel will suck out the inside of an egg, leaving it appear intact to the casual observer. Upon examination, the egg is discovered to be hollow. Words or claims that appear substantial upon first look but disintegrate into hollow meaninglessness on analysis are weasels. Commonly used weasel words include "helps" (the champion weasel); "like" (used in a comparative sense); "virtual" or "virtually"; "acts" or "works"; "can be"; "up to"; "as much as"; "refreshes"; "comforts"; "tackles"; "fights"; "come on"; "the feel of"; "the look of"; "looks like"; "fortified"; "enriched"; and "strengthened."
Samples of Weasel Claims
"Helps control dandruff sympto
"Leaves dishes virtually spotless." We have seen so many ad claims that we have learned to tune out weasels. You are supposed to think "spotless," rather than "virtually" spotless.
"Only half the price of many color sets." "Many" is the weasel. The claim is supposed to give the impression that the set is inexpensive.
"Tests confirm one mouthwash best against mouth odor."
"Hot Nestlés cocoa is the very best." Remember the "best" and "better" routine.
"Listerine fights bad breath." "Fights," not "stops."
"Lots of things have changed, but Hershey's goodness hasn't." This claim does not say that Hershey's chocolate hasn't changed.
"Bacos, the crispy garnish that tastes just like its name."
2. THE UNFINISHED CLAIM
The unfinished claim is one in which the ad claims the product is better, or has more of something, but does not finish the comparison.
Samples of Unfinished Claims
"Magnavox gives you more." More what?
"Anacin: Twice as much of the pain reliever doctors recommend most." This claim fits in a number of categories but it does not say twice as much of what pain reliever.
"Supergloss does it with more color, more shine, more sizzle, more!"
"Coffee-mate gives coffee more body, more flavor." Also note that "body" and "flavor" are weasels.
"You can be sure if it's Westinghouse." Sure of what?
"Scott makes it better for you."
"Ford LTD--700% quieter."
When the FTC asked Ford to substantiate this claim, Ford revealed that they meant the inside of the Ford was 700% quieter than the outside.
3. THE "WE'RE DIFFERENT AND UNIQUE" CLAIM
This kind of claim states that there is nothing else quite like the product being advertised. For example, if Schlitz would add pink food coloring to its beer they could say, "There's nothing like new pink Schlitz." The uniqueness claim is supposed to be interpreted by readers as a claim to superiority.
Samples of the "We're Different and Unique" Claim
"There's no other mascara like it."
"Only Doral has this unique filter system."
"Cougar is like nobody else's car."
"Either way, liquid or spray, there's nothing else like it."
"If it doesn't say Goodyear, it can't be polyglas." "Polyglas" is a trade name copyrighted by Goodyear. Goodrich or Firestone could make a tire exactly identical to the Goodyear one and yet couldn't call it "polyglas"--a name for fiberglass belts.
"Only Zenith has chromacolor." Same as the "polyglas" gambit. Admiral has solarcolor and RCA has accucolor.
4. THE "WATER IS WET" CLAIM
"Water is wet" claims say something about the product that is true for any brand in that product category, (for example, "Schrank's water is really wet.") The claim is usually a statement of fact, but not a real advantage over the competition.
Samples of the "Water is Wet" Claim
"Mobil: the Detergent Gasoline." Any gasoline acts as a cleaning agent.
"Great Lash greatly increases the diameter of every lash."
"Rheingold, the natural beer." Made from grains and water as are other beers.
"SKIN smells differently on everyone." As do many perfumes.
5. THE "SO WHAT" CLAIM
This is the kind of claim to which the careful reader will react by saying "So What?" A claim is made which is true but which gives no real advantage to the product. This is similar to the "water is wet" claim except that it claims an advantage which is not shared by most of the other brands in the product category.
Samples of the "So What" Claim
"Geritol has more than twice the iron of ordinary supplements." But is twice as much beneficial to the body?
"Campbell's gives you tasty pieces of chicken and not one but two chicken stocks." Does the presence of two stocks improve the taste?
"Strong enough for a man but made for a woman." This deodorant claims says only that the product is aimed at the female market.
6. THE VAGUE CLAIM
The vague claim is simply not clear. This category often overlaps with others. The key to the vague claim is the use of words that are colorful but meaningless, as well as the use of subjective and emotional opinions that defy verification. Most contain weasels.
Samples of the Vague Claim
"Lips have never looked so luscious." Can you imagine trying to either prove or disprove such a claim?
"Lipsavers are fun--they taste good, smell good and feel good."
"Its deep rich lather makes hair feel good again."
"For skin like peaches and cream."
"The end of meatloaf boredom."
"Take a bite and you'll think you're eating on the Champs Elysées."
"Winston tastes good like a cigarette should."
"The perfect little portable for all around viewing with all the features of higher priced sets."
"Fleishman's makes sensible eating delicious."
7. THE ENDORSEMENT OR TESTIMONIAL
A celebrity or authority appears in an ad to lend his or her stellar qualities to the product. Sometimes the people will actually claim to use the product, but very often they don't. There are agencies surviving on providing products with testimonials.
Samples of Endorsements or Testimonials
"Joan Fontaine throws a shot-in-the-dark party and her friends learn a thing or two."
"Darling, have you discovered Masterpiece? The most exciting men I know are smoking it." (Eva Gabor)
"Vega is the best handling car in the U.S." This claim was challenged by the FTC, but GM answered that the claim is only a direct quote from Road and Track magazine.
8. THE SCIENTIFIC OR STATISTICAL CLAIM
This kind of ad uses some sort of scientific proof or experiment, very specific numbers, or an impressive sounding mystery ingredient.
Samples of Scientific or Statistical Claims
"Wonder Break helps build strong bodies 12 ways." Even the weasel "helps" did not prevent the FTC from demanding this ad be withdrawn. But note that the use of the number 12 makes the claim far more believable than if it were taken out.
"Easy-Off has 33% more cleaning power than another popular brand." "Another popular brand" often translates as some other kind of oven cleaner sold somewhere. Also the claim does not say Easy-Off works 33% better.
"Special Morning--33% more nutrition." Also an unfinished claim.
"Certs contains a sparkling drop of Retsyn."
"ESSO with HTA."
"Sinarest. Created by a research scientist who actually gets sinus headaches."
9. THE "COMPLIMENT THE CONSUMER" CLAIM
This kind of claim butters up the consumer by some form of flattery.
Samples of the "Compliment the Consumer" Claim
"We think a cigar smoker is someone special."
"If what you do is right for you, no matter what others do, then RC Cola is right for you."
"You pride yourself on your good home cooking...."
"The lady has taste."
"You've come a long way, baby."
10. THE RHETORICAL QUESTION
This technique demands a response from the audience. A question is asked and the viewer or listener is supposed to answer in such a way as to affirm the product's goodness.
Samples of the Rhetorical Question
"Plymouth--isn't that the kind of car America wants?"
"Shouldn't your family be drinking Hawaiian Punch?"
"What do you want most from coffee? That's what you get most from Hills."
"Touch
of Sweden: could your hands use a small miracle?"
Conclusions
Advertisement as a means of representation has been so frequently used that we can see it from the range of TV to the newspaper. As an important part of advertisements, advertising English is increasingly becoming the object studied by some linguists and psychologists. Advertising language as a special kind of language is very different from common language. It has its own features in morphology, syntax, and rhetorical devices.
Advertisement should have the function to persuade and attract consumers so that people are interested in the product which is propagated in the advertisement. Therefore, in order to successfully promote the sales of their products, the advertisement makers spare no efforts to work hard on the content and do their best to draw the attention of consumers through syntactic and rhetoric.
Advertisers know better. Although few people admit to being greatly influenced by ads, surveys and sales figures show that a well-designed advertising campaign has dramatic effects. A logical conclusion is that advertising works below the level of conscious awareness and it works even on those who claim immunity to its message. Ads are designed to have an effect while being laughed at, belittled, and all but ignored.
Bibliography:
Bovee, C.L & Arens, W. F., Contemporary advertising, Boston: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1992.
Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary, Glasgow: Harper & Collins Publishers, 2006.
Corbett, Edward P., Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Iarovici, E.,R. Amel, “The Strategy of a Headline” in Semiotica 77 (4), 441-459,1989.
Leigh, J.H., “The Use of Figures of Speech in Print Ad Headlines”, 1994 in The Journal of Advertising [online]
23 (2), 17-33, 14 Nov. 2008.
Lennon, P., Allusion in the press: an applied linguistic study [online]. Berlin and New York: Mouton de
Gruyter, 2004.
Piller, Ingrid, “Advertising as a Site of Language Contact” in Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 23: 170-
- Language dialects of English
- Language World Picture and National-Cultural Specificities in Oral and Written Text
- Latvijas Centrālās bankas funkcijas
- LC-четырехполюсник в виде П-образного звена
- LDAP
- Leadership Theory
- Le fer de lance et les industries de pointe de l’économie française
- Korxona oborotidan olinadigan soliqlar auditi
- Kosmētika kā sievietes dzīves sastāvdaļa
- Kriminalistika
- Labor market in Russia
- Labor market in the national economy
- Land recourses, water resources in Germany and Japan
- Language and culture.Writing skills
