Peculiarities of psycho-linguistic classification of translation

MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN

COLLEGE OF FOREIGH LANGUAGES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

psycho-linguistic classification of translation

 

 

                               Course Paper

 

 

 

 

 

                                                         Student: Aizhan Mendybayeva

                              Group: PD-37 

                                                              Supervisor: Ramilya N.Abdullina

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CONTENTS

 

 

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………3

 

Chapter I: HISTORY AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF TRANSLATIONS……….5

1.1. History of translation………………………………………………………….5

1.2. Psycholinguistic Classification Translation……………………………….....16

 

 

Chapter II: Peculiarities of psycho-linguistic classification of translation………..…………………………………………………….21

2.1. Peculiarities of psycho-linguistic classification of translation……………….21

2.2. Linguistic peculiarities of simultaneous translation……………………….…23

2.3. Peculiarities of written translation…………………………………………... 26

 

 

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………...34

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………...………………………………………36

 

APPENDIX

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

The theme of course paper is psycho-linguistic classification of translation. 

The actuality of the chosen theme is now important to know and study the classification of translation, because this classification of translation is the most common and popular in sphere of translation. And every translator must fully know it.  Each high-quality and well-educated translator has skillfully and efficiently use their knowledge and apply them when he wants.

When you stop and think about it, everything in life is translation. We translate our feelings into actions. When we put anything into words, we translate our thoughts. Every physical action is a translation from one state to another. Translating from one language into another is only the most obvious form of an activity which is perhaps the most common of all human activities.

This maybe the reason people usually take translation for granted, as something that does not require any special effort, and at the same time, why translation is so challenging and full of possibilities. There is nothing easy or simple about translation, even as there is nothing easy or simple about any human activity. It only looks easy because you are used to doing it. Anyone who is good at a certain activity can make it appear easy, even though, when we pause to think, we realize there is nothing easy about it. Translation in the formal sense deals with human language, the most common yet the most complex and hallowed of human functions. Language is what makes us who we are.

Language can work miracles. Language can kill, and language can heal. Transmitting meaning from one language to another brings people together, helps them share each other's culture, benefit from each other's experience, and makes them aware of how much they all have in common.  The conditions of oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator's performance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only once and for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with no possibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. This creates additional problems and the users have sometimes to be content with a lower level of equivalence. These days, it is important to know the types of translations, it is necessary.

Subject of course paper is to describe of: psycho-linguistic classifications of translation.

The object of course paper is: to consider all kinds and types of psycho-linguistic classifications of translation.

Purpose of course paper is: to consider and examine all classifications of the psycho-linguistic classification of translation.

Aims of the course paper are:

-to study of literature and examples of each type of translation;

-to study of the terminology;

-to examine types of psycholinguistic classification;

-to consider and examine all the methods psycho-linguistic classifications of translation;

-to consider each type of translation as a single;

Methods of course paper are: theoretical analysis, selection of methods and techniques the translator in this classification of translation.

Course papers consist of introduction, 2 chapters, conclusions, bibliography and appendixes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter I: 1.1. History of translation

 

When we talk about the history of translation, we should think of the theories and names that emerged at its different periods. In fact, each era is characterized by specific changes in translation history, but these changes differ from one place to another. For example, the developments of translation in the western world are not the same as those in the Arab world, as each nation knew particular incidents that led to the birth of particular theories. So, what are the main changes that marked translation history in both the West and the Arab world?

Translation in the western world

For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting up a society that fits God's will, they decided to challenge His authority and build a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand each other. Then, he scattered them allover the earth. After that incident, the number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation [Abdessalam Benabdelali, p.56, 2006].

Actually, with the birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history. Researchers mention that writings on translation go back to the Romans. Eric Jacobson claims that translating is a Roman invention [see McGuire: 1980] Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the twentieth century.

Another period that knew a changing step in translation development was marked by St Jerome (fourth century BC). "His approach to translating the Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures." [Munday, 2001]

Later on, the translation of the Bible remained subject to many conflicts between western theories and ideologies of translation for more than a thousand years.

Moreover, these conflicts on Bible translation were intensified with the coming of the Reformation in the sixteenth century, when "translation came to be used as a weapon in both dogmatic and political conflicts as nation states began to emerge and the centralization of the Church started to weaken evidence in linguistic terms by the decline of Latin as a universal language." [McGuire, 1980]

Needless to say that the invention of printing techniques in the fifteenth century developed the field of translation and helped in the appearance of early theorists. For instance, Etienne Dolet, whose heretic mistranslation of one of Plato's dialogues, the phrase "rien du tout" (nothing at all) that showed his disbelief in immortality, led to his execution.

The seventeenth century knew the birth of many influential theorists such as Sir John Denhom , Abraham Cowley , John Dryden , who was famous for his distinction between three types of translation; metaphase, paraphrase and imitation, and Alexander Pope .

In the eighteenth century, the translator was compared to an artist with a moral duty both to the work of the original author and to the receiver. Moreover, with the enhancement of new theories and volumes on translation process, the study of translation started to be systematic; Alexander Frayer Tayler's volume Principles of Translation is a case in point.

The nineteenth century was characterized by two conflicting tendencies; the first considered translation as a category of thought and saw the translator as a creative genius, who enriches the literature and language into which he is translating, while the second saw him through the mechanical function of making a text or an author known.

This period of the nineteenth century knew also the enhancement of Romanticism, the fact that led to the birth of many theories and translations in the domain of literature, especially poetic translation. An example of these translations is the one used by Edward Fitzgerald for Rubaiyat Omar Al-Khayyam.

In the second half of the twentieth century, studies on translation became an important course in language teaching and learning at schools. What adds to its value is the creation of a variety of methods and models of translation. For instance, the grammar-translation method studies the grammatical rules and structures of foreign languages. The cultural model is also a witness for the development of translation studies in the period. It required in translation not only a word-for-word substitution, but also a cultural understanding of the way people in different societies think. With this model, we can distinguish between the ethnographical-semantic method and the dynamic equivalent method.

Another model that appears in the period is text-based translation model, which focuses on texts rather than words or sentences in translation process. This model includes a variety of sub-models: the interpretative model, the text linguistic model and models of translation quality assessments that in turn provide us with many models such as those of Riess, Wilss, Koller, House, North and Hulst.

The period is also characterized by pragmatic and systematic approach to the study of translation. The most famous writings and figures that characterize the twenties are those of Jean-Paul Vinay and Darbelnet, who worked on a stylistic comparative study of French and English, Alfred Malblanc, George Mounin, John C. Catford. , Eugene Nida , who is affected by the Chomskyan generative grammar in his theories of translation, De Beau grand who writes a lot about translation, and many others who worked and still work for the development of the domain.

Nowadays, translation research started to take another path, which is more automatic. The invention of the internet, together with the new technological developments in communication and digital materials, has increased cultural exchanges between nations. This leads translators to look for ways to cope with these changes and to look for more practical techniques that enable them to translate more and waste less. They also felt the need to enter the world of cinematographic translation, hence the birth of audiovisual translation. The latter technique, also called screen translation, is concerned with the translation of all kinds of TV programs, including films, series, and documentaries. This field is based on computers and translation software programs, and it is composed of two methods: dubbing and subtitling. In fact, audiovisual translation marks a changing era in the domain of translation.

In short, translation has a very wide and rich history in the West. Since its birth, translation was the subject of a variety of research and conflicts between theorists. Each theorist approaches it according to his viewpoint and field of research, the fact that gives its history a changing quality.

Translation in the Arab world

The early translations used in Arabic are dated back to the time of Syrians (the first half of the second century AD), who translated into Arabic a large heritage that belongs to the era of paganism; Syrians were influenced in their translations by the Greek ways of translation. Syrian's translations were more literal and faithful to the original According to Addidaoui, Jarjas was one of the best Syrian translators; his famous Syrian translation of Aristotle's book In The World was very faithful and close to the original.

Additionally, the time of the prophet Mohamed (peace is upon him) is of paramount importance for translation history. The spread of Islam and the communication with non-Arabic speaking communities as Jews, Romans and others pushed the prophet to look for translators and to encourage the learning of foreign languages. One of the most famous translators of the time is Zaid Ibnu Thabet, who played a crucial role in translating letters sent by the prophet to foreign kings of Persia, Syria, Rome and Jews, and also letters sent by those kings to the prophet.

Another era that knew significant changes in Arabic translation was related to the translation of the Holy Koran. According to Ben Chakroun [p.458, 2002], the early translators of the Koran focused on its meaning. Salman El Farisi, for instance, translated the meaning of Surat Al Fatiha for Persian Muslims, who didn't speak Arabic. Ben Chakroun states that Western libraries still preserve many translations of the Koran, and that some of them such as the Greek translation of the philosopher Naktis belong to the third century (BC). Besides, the Holy Koran received a special interest from the translators. It was translated into Persian by Sheikh Mohamed Al-Hafid Al-Boukhari and into Turkish language by Sheikh Al-Fadl Mohamed Ben Idriss Al-Badlissi.

Despite the proliferation of the Koran translations, this matter was and is still the point of many debates and conflicts in the Arab world. An example of these conflicts occurs after the translation of the Koran into Turkish language by the Turkish government in the time of Mustapha Kamal Ataturk. The latter aimed to use the translation instead of the original book as a way to spread secularism in the Islamic country. This led to a wave of criticism from Arab intellectuals, journalists and muftis.

Besides, the core of the conflicts that existed and still exist in the translation of Koran is related to the reason behind translation itself, i.e., whether to use the translation as a way to teach the principles of Islam or to use it in praying and legislation was the difficult choice that faced translators. In general, translation of Koran knows various changes, the fact that led to the creation of special committees that took the responsibility of translating it in a way that preserves it from falsification.

Another era that knows important developments in the Arab translation is that of 'the first Abbasid period’. Translation knew an enhancement with the Caliph Al-Mansour, who built the city of Baghdad, and was also developed in the time of the Caliph Al-Ma'moun, who built 'Bait Al Hikma', which was the greatest institute of translation at the time. During the period translators focused on Greek philosophy, Indian science and Persian literature

The Arab history of translation is also characterized by the name of Al-Jahid one of the greatest theorists in translation. His theories and writings in the domain of translation are still used today by many professional Arab translators. According to Al-Jahid, "the translator should know the structure of the speech, habits of the people and their ways of understanding each other."

In addition to his insistence on the knowledge of the structure of the language and the culture of its people, Al-Jahid talked too much about the importance of revision after translation. In brief, Al-Jahid puts a wide range of theories in his two books Al-Hayawān and Al-Bayān Wa Attabayyun.

Further, the Egyptian scholar Mona Baker distinguished between two famous methods in Arab translation; the first belongs to Yohana Ibn Al- Batriq and Ibn Naima Al-Himsi, and is based on literal translation, that is, each Greek word was translated by its equivalent Arabic word, while the second refers to Hunayn Ibn Ishaq Al-Jawahiri and is based on sense-for-sense translation as a way to create fluent target texts that preserve the meaning of the original.

Nowadays, Arab translations know many changes. The proliferation of studies in the domain helps in the development of translation and the birth of new theorists. Translation in the Arab world also benefits from the use of computers, digital materials and the spread of databases of terminologies that offer translators a considerable number of dictionaries. This has led to the creation of many associations of translation like 'the committee of Arab translators' in Saudi-Arabia and many others. However, in comparing the number of translated books by Arab translators with those of westerners, we feel that the gap between them is still wide, as the translations used by Arabs since the time of Al-Ma'moun up to now do not exceed ten thousand books, which is less than what Spain translates in one year

In short, the history of translation in the Arab world is marked by many changes and events. Since its early beginnings with Syrians, translation knew the birth of many theorists who sited up the basis of Arabic translation and theories. In fact, it is in religious discourse where Arabic translation reaches its peak. For the translation of Koran received much interest from Arab translators. Today, translation in the Arab world knows a sort of progression, especially with its openness to Western theories and theorists, but it is still suffering from many problems and difficulties.

To sum up, translation history is rich in inventions and theories. Each era is characterized by the appearance of new theorists and fields of research in translation. It is true that the western history of translation is larger and rich in proportion to that of the Arabs, but we should not deny that the translation history of the latter started to develop year by year, especially with the great efforts of Arabic academia in the domain.

The Renaissance has been termed "the great age of translations." The rise of Humanism inspired translators from various European countries to translate many texts, especially those of the ancients. England in the early 16th century lagged far behind the Continent in the production of translations: by 1528, for example, Xenophon, Suetonius, Sallust, Thucydides, and Caesar were all readily-available in French; English translations would come only later.

Nicholas Grimshaw, in his 1558 preface to his English translation of Cicero focused on this phenomenon, criticizing the English for not having done for their country what "Italians, Frenchmenne, Spaniards, Dutchmen and other foreigns have liberally done for theirs."1 Henry Billinglsey stated, in the preface to his 1570 translation of Euclid, that he hoped that his translation would "excite and stirre up others learned, to do the like... By means whereof, our English tongue shall no lesse be enriched with good Authors, then are other strange tongues: as the Dutch, French, Italian and Spanish: in which are red all good authors in a manner, found amongst the Greeks or Latinas."

Latin was the reigning universal intellectual language of the day, and the best means of having a text read throughout Europe; for those who wrote in such languages as Flemish, Dutch, or Czech, Latin was almost indispensable in the spreading of texts. If the authors were not fluent in Latin, they hired translators or arranged to have the hiring done by their publishers. Translating a work from a foreign tongue into one's vernacular was seen by many as a noble challenge and a contribution to a national literature. Translation as a phenomenon was so esteemed and widespread during the 16th century that the printer Etienne Dolet's La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en alter served not only as a manual on how to translate but also as a sign of the times. Castiglione's The Courtier, for example was first published in Italian in 1528. Latin, French, and German translations were already published when Sir Thomas Hobby, declaring that it was his duty to his fellow countrymen to make available in English so useful and learned a guide, translated Castiglione into English in 1561. English translations gradually increased; indeed, "a study of Elizabethan translations is a study of the means by which the Renaissance came to England."

Translations from other Greek texts appeared in England during the English Renaissance, but some were based on translations of translations (e.g. North's Plutarch translated from French into English); others were translated from the original Greek, but generally into Latin, the universal scholarly language. Translations of Plato were practically non-existent in the Middle Ages.

Fifteenth century Italy saw a great revival of interest in Greek texts and translations, fueled by a proliferation of new manuscripts from the East, and culminating in the great Greek printed editions of Aldus Manutius in Venice between 1495 and 1515. England's growing interest in Greek texts derived largely from travel in and trade with Italy. While Manutius produced in 1513 a magnificent Greek text of Plato's works, it was two French Protestant refugees that achieved the most influential translation of the century: Henri Estienne and Jean de Serres, who dedicated their magnificent 1578 three volume Greek and Latin edition of Plato to Queen Elizabeth. This scholarly masterpiece is still used as a definitive Latin text of Plato's works.

More and more Platonic texts were available in England in the 16th century, but the translations were into Latin, and generally done by foreign scholars. Interest in Plato at this time was never as strong in England as it was on the Continent, and this is clearly reflected in the printing of texts: during the period 1485-1603, one edition of one authentic dialogue of Plato was printed in England, while more than 100 editions were published in France, including several editions of the complete works. While interest in translations in general ran high in England during the Tudor period, Plato was virtually ignored save for reading foreign editions.

The Stuart period of English history, however, saw an almost immediate burgeoning of interest in Plato, especially the theme of Platonic love which runs through so much Stuart literature, though there still did not exist an English translation of any of Plato's works, even as a school text. 1675 saw the appearance of the first English translations of authentic dialogues of Plato: the Apology and Phaedo, translated by an anonymous hand and published in London. Platonisme unveiled, an English translation of a French work, signaled the end of the high interest in Plato in England.

While general interest in Plato dwindled, the strong tendency in 18th century Britain to link schooling and scholarship with the Classics did result in more English translations of Plato, and approximately twenty Platonic dialogues were translated by different scholars over the course of the century. Also appearing in the 18th century was an English abridged edition of the complete works, but this translation was based on the French text of Dacier, rather than the original Greek. It is only in the nineteenth century that Plato's complete works are translated directly from the Greek into English, the first edition being that of Thomas Taylor [consult Special Collections], which is shown below.

What is a translation? Let's try to understand. The concept of transfer means the interpretation of certain texts in the original language and the creation of a suitable equivalent of the text in another language. In other words, the translation is the expression of thought, which was described in one language with grammatical and stylistic features of another language. It is logical to assume that the transfer originated at a time when the earth appeared the first polyglot tribes.

Another problem, which for years has been the subject of disputes of scientists from different countries, is a classification of the translation. Over time, the translation of documents classified by the method of play or read. However, this classification does not satisfy all the scientists, as in the translation process works a range of mental mechanisms:

-mechanisms of memory;

-mechanisms for transfer of registration;

-mechanisms of perception of the source text;

-mechanisms of transition from one language to another;

Over time, translational activity is becoming increasingly automated nature. To the aid of an interpreter, first came to typewriters, and then - the computer. All this is somewhat easier for the interpreter and allow work to fulfill orders as quickly as possible.

What are the requirements for result of work of an interpreter? A quality translation requires knowledge of grammar, style, and cognitive features of the language. Therefore, the translation involved is experts in the field of linguistics.

Services, which provide the translation, can be divided into oral and written translation. Translation involves not only the selection of suitable equivalents for foreign words. It is also the ability to create a linked text without loss of principal and washed and meaning.

Translation Bureau can offer translation services for art or science and technology. Such work requires knowledge of industry terminology. When the artistic translation of the text you want to save the form and send the product, its content and structure.

In addition, interpreters defend the right to be called art of translation. This is especially true of literary translation. Every translator of a literary text seeks to merge with the personality of the author. His creative personality translator opens with an eye to the originality of the author's method of presentation.

A variety of translation services now offer a large number of companies. Many of them have their own office and a page on the Internet, in which case their services to assist them to promote search engine optimization sites.

Translation - which includes interpreting the meaning of text in one language and a new, equivalent text in another language?

Initially, translation was carried out solely by man, but there have been attempts to automate and computerize the translation of texts in natural languages ​​or to use computers as aids in translation.

The purpose of the transfer is to establish equivalence relations between the original and translated text (so that both texts carried the same meaning). These constraints include context, the grammar of the source language, the traditions of writing, its idioms, etc.

Many Scientifics distinguish some main types of translations: Oral translation is one of the most difficult types of translation. This is primarily due to the specifics of speech. Speaking is spontaneous and not at all subject to the rules typical of written text. In addition, she has strong personality. Rate of speech is usually quite high, which also complicates the understanding of it. Therefore, a fairly common situation is when a person is free to read foreign texts, at the same time poorly understood spoken language of foreigners and he can hardly express them in a foreign language.

When translating written text, even if it comes to performing complex technical translation, the translator is always possible to read the text or part of a few times and in difficult cases refer to a dictionary or directory, or consult with colleagues.

In the case of the interpretation of such a possibility, as a rule, no. There is only one kind of interpretation, which allows it - translated from an audio or video. The recording can listen to or watch a few times and stop at any place. You can even bring more such interpretation to the writing, recording translation in text form, which may not sound interpreter and someone else - for example, an actor or professional announcer, as it usually happens when dubbing movies or TV news translation.

Direct interpretation is more complicated. It is divided into sequential and simultaneous, but both options have their difficulties.

The sequential transfer is assumed that the speaker in a foreign language makes a deliberate pause for the translator. The translator must remember everything that is said to pause immediately translate this in mind, and say aloud the translation during the pause, then continues his speech by saying (or it corresponds to the second party in another language, as it happens in the negotiations). Obviously, this type of translation is suitable for sightseeing, business and political negotiations (on which it is especially useful because it gives more time to think about an answer, while there is a translation), the technical installation of various equipment with a foreign engineer, etc.

Simultaneous interpretation is no noticeable pauses not intended. The translator must translate to say almost simultaneously with the speaker that is translated on the fly. Obviously, it needs to know the language perfectly and have a rich vocabulary, because no way to use a dictionary for this mode of operation there. Furthermore, it should be able to disperse so attention to listen to what he said now foreign and at the same time utter translation of what he said about 20 second before! It is obvious why professional interpreter’s disease is considered an early heart attack. It's working for wear, and why simultaneous interpreters work on each long event, usually in pairs, one after other every thirty minutes (more, few can withstand.)

Interpreters, who can provide interpretation, particularly in demand in various international activities of VIP-level, such as negotiations, congresses, conferences, major sporting events. Typically, it uses special electronic equipment that allows each participant to hear the translation through headphones, but the translators have time to translate from Spanish, Italian, Polish, Finnish, Portuguese, Hungarian, Czech and heaps of other languages.

There are existent main classifications of translation: genre-stylistic classification of translation. There are two main classifications of types of transfer:

The nature of translated texts and the nature of speech act an interpreter in the translation process. The first classification is associated with the genre and stylistic features of the original, the second - with psycholinguistic peculiarities of speech acts in writing and verbally.

Genre and stylistic classification transfers depending on genre and stylistic features of the original results in the selection of two functional types of maps the yes: artistic (literary) translation, and informative (special) translation.

Translation is translation of works of fiction. Literary works are opposed to all other verbal works because they all have a dominant is one of the communicative functions, namely art and aesthetic or poetic. The main purpose of any work of this type is to achieve a particular aesthetic effect, creating an artistic image. This aesthetic orientation distinguishes it from other artistic acts of verbal communication, Institute formative content of which is primary and independent.

Genre-stylistic classification of translation- - one of two best-known classifications of translation, which is based on the nature of the source text. This classification includes transfer unit transfers, depending on the stylistic features of the original into two major subtypes of functional translation: literary translation and informative (special) translation.

The juxtaposition of literary translation is based on the contrast of informative art text of special texts in terms of core functions that these texts do. "Each of the varieties of the translated material has its own specific features, which pose special requirements for transfer" [Fedorov, 2002, p. 272]. Thus, for a literary text recognizes the main function of art and the aesthetic function, a special word - function of the message, informing. Translation is called "translation of works of fiction, whose main task is to AEs in the generation of speech products, can produce an artistic and aesthetic impact on the recipient" [Sdobnikov 2001, p.35].

Informative translation is called the "transfer of special texts, whose main function is to report some information, but not in the artistic and aesthetic impact on the reader" . Genre and stylistic classification of transfers as well as the need to develop one way or another is recognized by all theorists of translation, with some researchers B. Vinogradov, Alekseev [Vinogradov, 2001, p.241; Alekseev, 2004, p.354] consider it necessary to its supplement and clarify. Thus, the V.N. Commissioner include informative text to detective work, descriptions of travel essays on the grounds that there is "dominated by a purely informational narrative" [Komissarov, 1990, p.45], although he notes that "in the original requiring the whole of literary translation, may be parts that perform exceptionally informative function, and, on the contrary, in the translation of informative texts may be elements of literary translation ".

B.C. Vinogradov said the feasibility of separation of six major functional-style types of texts: colloquial, formal, business, social, informational, scientific, literary texts, as well as religious works. Also, for example, the theory of translation of sacred designs Lebedev [Lebedev, 2001].   Alekseev proposes to use the more advanced the theory of translation of texts and scientific classification, scientific and technical text, scientific and academic text, a popular science text, encyclopedic text, text art criticism musicological text, philosophical text, documents, individuals and legal entities, ads , newspaper and magazine information sheet, the legislative text, a religious text, preaching, instruction, recipes (cooking, etc.) funeral announcement and obituary, memoirs, public speech, advertising, personal letter, business letter, arts journalism (essays), a literary text, poetic text as a subspecies of the literary text, fiction [Alekseeva, 2008]. It is with these types of text, according to the researcher, often had to deal translator.

From the above classifications of different authors it becomes clear that the division transfer the artistic and informative is conditional and is focused exclusively on basic functions, which are designed to perform with translated text. Allocation within the sub-classification as dictated by the specific needs of participants in the translation process. "What, for example, may be deemed accurate and correct in the translation of scientific or business text for turnover of books and writing, can easily be inappropriate and wrong in the translation of literary works, where the usefulness of the translation is often achieved by moving away from the verbatim , and vice versa "[Fedorov, 2002, sec. 272-273]

Next we consider the following classification of the translation. It is Psycholinguistic classifications of translation. Psycholinguistic classification of translation taking into account the mode of perception and creation of original text, translation, translation and localization divides the translation and interpretation.

Psycholinguistic classification is based on the translation differences in the nature of speech acts translator, scientific description of a particular type of transfer involves not only (and not so much) is purely linguistic, as psycholinguistic factors.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

2. Psycholinguistic Classification of Translation

 

Psycholinguistic Classification Translation - based on the nature of speech acts an interpreter.

This classification takes into account the one hand, the way the perception of the original text, but on the other hand - how to create a target text. In accordance with this classification in the theory of translation business is divided into two main types of translation: translation and interpretation services.

To the difference between translation and interpretation are the following. When the translation of the interpreter is not limited by rigid time constraints, in contrast to the interpreter performs the interpretation, which is limited in time rate of oratory, the need to issue a translation simultaneously with the sound of oratory, or immediately after the utterance of the text or part of the speaker. In translation, the translator translates linearly,  one statement after another, but mostly because the interpreter is available to all the text is still up to the moment of transfer, the transfer phase immediately precedes the stage of acquaintance with the original, respectively, each unit being transferred to them as interpreter translating perceived unity of the text. When the interpreter translator receives and translates the text in small segments as they are pronouncing the speaker, but may not apply to the translation process to other parts of the translated text and can not analyze the content of the text as a whole.

Translation and interpretation services are distinguished by the nature of links with cross-language communicants. As a rule, the interpreter of the written text is separated from the original and its author's time and distance, and the interpreter is in direct contact with all parties to cross-language communication, and can install them with feedback. It can correct statement according to participants' reactions to the transfer of communication, with the nature of the relationships involved in the communicative event may change, as in the case of two-way transfer of conversation, that is, each of the communicants can consistently act as a source, then the role of the receptor.

Inside the translation and interpretation is convenient to define subspecies. LS Barkhudarov offered the following types of translations: writing, translation, oral interpretation, written translation and oral-oral and written translation (Barkhudarov, 1975).

Writing, translation is a translation of written texts, oral interpretation - interpretation of the oral text. Within the oral interpretation, there are two subspecies: consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation. The peculiarities of written translation.

Written translation from many languages of the world has a common peculiarity. Since English and German are more succinct than Russian, written translation from them will appear somewhat longer than the original text.

This is why Özeray typically measures the size of each written translation job twice—first as an estimate before the work is done, then more precisely and finally after the work is done.

The number of pages of the original text and the translation is counted using the character counting function in MS Word on the basis of 1800 characters plus spaces per page.

The first reason is the Translator’s code of conduct, which says that a text is inviolable. The translator has no right to change the text to suit his own preference, to abbreviate or expand it, unless the client has instructed him to do so.

The second reason has to do with the peculiarities of cross-national linguistics.

Consecutive interpreting - translation, carried out by a translator after text, in whole or slice it were uttered. Depending on whether the translator translates the text entirely after his utterance of the speaker or fragments, consistent translation is divided into the actual serial monologue speech translation and indention-phrase translation.

A Consecutive interpreter delivers the message in a target language after the keynote speaker has finished talking. Usually the speaker pauses after every sentence to enable the interpreter to render his translation. The source message can be presented in parts or as a whole. Consecutive interpretation allows the interpreter a certain amount of input as well as the opportunity to take notes. Although this is a time consuming process, it delivers a higher degree of accuracy and completeness in the translation.

Consecutive Interpreting is needed in the following circumstances:

Community Interpreting;

Court and Legal Interpreting;

Conference Telephone Call Interpreting;

Accompany Interpreting;

Whispered Interpreting;

Indention-phrase translation - a translation, when "the interpreter translates into 1.2 hearing a phrase or a slightly larger piece of spoken text, which he says (or party talks), and immediately after these few words uttered" (Alekseev, 2004, with. 13).

With the rapid development of international exchanges pushed by economic globalization, competent interpreters are in great demand. As two main forms of interpreting, consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting are both employed on different occasions for different communication purposes and greatly welcomed by society. Each is recognized as a distinctive mode of interpreting due to its own advantages and characteristics. It is widely believed that simultaneous interpreting is a formidable task beyond the average people and is much harder than consecutive interpreting. This thesis tries to make a contrast between quality requirements for interpreters in both consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting and illustrates their own difficulties and finally puts forward some suggestions on both consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting teachings. This thesis is composed of four chapters excluding introduction and conclusion. Its briefly introduces interpreting scenarios and types of interpreting. Then it makes a brief contrast between consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting. Finally it deals with common quality requirements for interpreters in both consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting and misconceptions held by the majority of people about these two modes. Then analyzes the process of consecutive interpreting with its focus on quality requirements for interpreters. Consecutive interpreting mainly involves the interpreter’ listening duration and his/her ability to identify the main ideas, short-term memory proficiency, note-taking skill, interpreting output, and public speaking skill as well as the ability to meet high expectations from different user groups. Chapter Three is an analysis of simultaneous interpreting focusing on its quality requirements for interpreters. Simultaneous interpreting requires that interpreters be equipped with high ability to convey the semantic meanings of both the source language and the target language, processing capacity, high ability to handle sentences with different structures, team spirit, intercultural competence and high ability to interpret figures as well as sight interpreting skill. Chapter Four puts forward some suggestions on consecutive interpreting teaching based on its quality requirements for interpreters. It also proposes relevant coping tactics about consecutive interpreting and gives some suggestions on both in-class and after- class training for interpreters. Chapter Five proposes some suggestions on simultaneous interpreting teaching based on its quality requirements for interpreters. Relevant coping tactics about simultaneous interpreting and suggestions on in-class and after-class training for interpreters are also included. In conclusion, as two different modes of interpreting, both consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting have their own focuses on quality requirements for interpreters. It is not reasonable to jump to a conclusion that consecutive interpreting is harder than simultaneous interpreting or vice versa. Interpreting teaching should be centered on cultivating the trainees’ relevant skills and abilities in accordance with quality requirements for interpreters in both consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting…

Simultaneous translation - translate, a translator at the same time pronouncing the original speaker. Thus, with simultaneous translation occurs at the same time and perception of the text of the original translator, and causing the target text. A Simultaneous interpreter interprets for an individual or a group in a target language while the speaker speaks without interruption. Although consecutive interpretation is often considered to be more accurate of the two, simultaneous interpreting is much more time efficient. It is for this reason simultaneous interpreting is one of the most common forms of interpretation. It is also the most difficult form. There are very few such translators. Not all interpreters can do it well.

Simultaneous interpretation is a real-time skill. There are no second chances once the moment is lost. The peculiarity of simultaneous interpreting evolves the necessity to engage some, two at the minimum, interpreters at a time. None of the simultaneous interpreters can interpret alone all event on end.

Simultaneous Interpreters work in a pair in an interpreter booth equipped with microphones, infrared transmitter and headphones. The audience receives the message in a target language through the headsets.

Simultaneous Interpreting is needed in the following circumstances:-

Conference Interpreting;

Whispered Interpreting;

Sign Language Interpreting;