Punctuation in english language

                            Introduction. 

  Theme of the course work has been chosen with the aim to show how important punctuation in the language. I was interested to learn more about the rules of punctuation in English, since I knew little about it, and just to compare them with the punctuation of the Russian language.

     It's important to know the rules of English punctuation when you write, as using the wrong punctuation may lead to misunderstandings. Using the correct punctuation is especially important when you are writing to impress, such as when you are applying for a new job, or when you are writing to a customer. Out of the many important elements of writing, punctuation may be the most essential. Punctuation helps direct us through written language with its system of symbols and the rules for using them. Correct usage of punctuation symbols like commas and periods, as well as spaces, capital letters and many other conventions, help the reader avoid confusion and understand more clearly what the writer has intended. Punctuation also affects the rhythm of how a sentence is read, as well as the actual meaning of the writing.

   To really understand how important proper punctuation is, look at the following simple sentence:

I did it.

  With the period at the end, it is a basic statement of fact. If we change the period to an exclamation point - I did it! - there is a distinct sense of pride from accomplishing something. And with a question mark at the end -  I did it? - the writer expresses wonderment and disbelief in having done something.These minute changes in punctuation alter the entire tone and meaning of the basic sentence.

      Punctuation (from Lat. Punctum 'point') - a set of punctuation marks and the system is developed and entrenched rules for their use.

     Why use punctuation? Why are not letters of the alphabet to writing was clear reading? After all of the letters denoting the speech sounds in words, but it is made up of words. But the fact that pronouncing individual words one by one, does not mean to make understandable spoken. Words in a speech in groups, between groups of words, and sometimes between the individual words are made interval of different length, the word groups or on individual words make it increase, then decrease in tone. And all this is not accidental, but is subject to certain rules: the intervals, and the rise and fall tone (the so-called intonation) express certain shades of meaning of the speech segments. The writer should firmly know what shade of meaning he wants to give his speech and its parts and how the techniques he has for this use. Punctuation, like spelling, is part of the graphics system, adopted for this language, and be as firmly assimilated, as well as letters of the alphabet with their sound values, to the letter accurately and fully expresses the content of the utterance. And to this content are equally perceived by anybody to read, it is necessary that the value of punctuation marks has been established firmly within a national language. Does not matter what the appearance of punctuation in different languages ​​can be identical, and meaning, and hence their use are different. It is important that all writers and readers in a particular language is quite equally understood that expresses one or another punctuation mark. 

     Punctuation means making points. It means putting the right kind of points in the right place so as to mark the exact length and meaning of sentences. Proper punctuation is essential in written English to enable the reader to understand what it is you are trying to say. Spacing with punctuation is also important to make your writing readable. Here are some English punctuation rules. 

                  Chapter I. Punctuation marks.

                         1. Uses of the Period in English writing

    A period (or a “full-stop” in British usage) is used to end a sentence. A sentence is a collection of one or more words with a subject and a predicate. Ending a sentence with a period implies that you need to take a pause and then begin reading the next sentence. It also implies that you are through with speaking for the time being until the next sentence begins. A period is a default ending mark to a sentence. Remember: Ending a sentence with no symbol is a punctuation error. Your sentences must end with an English punctuation mark. If no other basic punctuation (like a question mark, an exclamation mark etc) is to be used, a period fills in the space automatically. 

                 The Punctuation Rules for Ending a Sentence with a Period

 In order to give readers signals that would show them when to make pauses in the reading, you need to use end punctuation marks (periods, question marks, exclamation points) at the end of sentences. The period should be used to end sentences that have the following purposes:  
 
Ending a statement 
Citizens of a country should do some form of national service. 
 
Making a mild command  
Try to think about the kind of service for which you would be suitable. 
 
Reporting an indirect question  
The officer asked the new recruit why he wanted to join the navy. 
A direct question would be, the officer: "why do you want to join the navy?" 
 
Making a polite request  
Please write your details on this navy application form. 
  Punctuation marks are a convention of written language that ensure the clarity of writing. There are five punctuation rules for using periods as punctuation marks in written American English:

1. Sentence endings
2. Decimal points
3. Abbreviations
4. Computer files and Internet addresses
5. Play and poetry citations

The following sections explain and provide examples of the punctuation rules for periods in written English.

Periods to End Sentences

Use a period at the end of most declarative sentences. A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement. For example:

• The pumpkins molded in the garden.
• A noun has traditionally been defined as a word that names person, place, or thing.
• Cartoon Network is a popular television channel.
• My son ate all the cookies.

Use a period at the end of an imperative sentence that does not convey strong emotion. An imperative sentence is a sentence that makes direct commands, expresses requests, and grants or denies permission. For example:

• Please open the window.
• Bring a dessert to dinner tomorrow night.
• Wash your hands before eating.
• Press the blue button to print.

In general, most sentences in written English end with a period.

Periods as Decimal Points

Use a period as a decimal point to mark the boundary between an integral from the fractional part of a number. An integral is the whole number on the left side of a decimal point. A fraction is the number on the right side of a decimal point. For example:

• 1.5
• 3.14
• 13.375
• 8,652.3

Use a period to separate dollars from cents when writing about money in American English. For example:

• $1.99
• $0.25
• $175.03
• $2,675.17

Periods With Abbreviations

Use a period with most abbreviations including abbreviated titles, times, and words. For example:

• Ms. Johnson
• 5:00 p.m.
• c. (circa)
• Apr. (April)

Do not use a period with state or most organizational abbreviations. For example:

• LA (Louisiana)
• OR (Oregon)
• NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

Periods With File Names and Internet Addresses

Use a period to separate the name of a computer file from the file extension. A file extension identifies the type of file that a computer file is. For example:

• englishpunctuationrules.doc
• puppy.jpg
• bluewaterfall.css
• fireflies.mp3

Use a period to separate elements of Internet addresses including URLs and email addresses. For example:

• http://www.suite101.com/profile.cfm/hmkosur
• http://www.google.com/
• [email protected]
• [email protected]

Periods With Drama and Poetry Citations

Use a period to separate book, line, act, and scene elements in drama and poetry citations. Place a period between the acts and scenes of a prose play and between the acts, scenes, and lines of a verse play. For example:

• For Whom the Seagulls Fly 1.3 (act.scene)
• Contradiction in a Square Degree 2.2 (act.scene)
• Faust 1.1.125 (act.scene.line)
• A Midsummer's Night Dream 2.1.365 (act.scene.line)

Place a period between the books and lines of a poem. For example:

• Iliad 2.45 (book.line)
• The Faerie Queene 4.654 (book.line)
• Song of Myself 1.34-38 (book.lines)
• Aurora Leigh 9.12-35 (book.lines)

Punctuation is a convention of writing that help readers more clearly understand written language. Periods perform five basic functions in written American English: end sentences, as decimal points, abbreviations, electronic files and Internet addresses, and poem and drama citations.

                  2. Uses of the Comma in English writing

  The comma (,) is a very important punctuation mark in English that has numerous uses. The basic function of the comma is to divide between "light" elements within a sentence that have some relation in meaning to each other, as a period separates between "heavier" full sentences, which each convey a separate piece of meaning. Such a large variety in comma rules may lead to many errors English writers often make. You should also note that there may be many exceptions to the rules, as commas are to be used to make things as clear as possible for the reader, even when this comes contrary to the rules. Alternatively, you may consider avoiding using the comma by simply dividing a long sentence into two shorter ones using a period. Skilled writers develop a "feel" for effective comma usage as they progress with their English writing.

 
                                                       Comma

Comma (,) is used

-between a list of three or more words

To replace the word and for all but the last instance.  
Up, down, left and right.

-before a conjunction

1) When but or for are used.  
I did my best to protect the camp, but the bears were too aggressive.

2) When and or or are used the comma is optional.  
The flag is red, white, and blue. [known as the Oxford comma]  
The sizes are small, medium or large.

-to give additional information

1) To indicate contrast.  
The snake was brown, not green, and it was quite small.

2) Where the phrase could be in brackets.  
The recipe, which we hadn't tried before, is very easy to follow.

3) Where the phrase adds relevant information.  
Mr. Hardy, 68, ran his first marathon five years ago.

4) Where the addition is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence.  
Mr. Hardy, who enjoys bird watching, ran his first marathon five years ago.

5) Where the main clause of the sentence is dependent on the preceding clause.  
If at first you don't succeed, give up.  
Though the snake was small, I still feared for my life.

-for opening phrases, conjunctive verbs, etc.

1) Introductory or opening phrases.  
In general, sixty-eight is quite old to run a marathon.  
On the whole, snakes only attack when riled.

2) Conjunctive verbs.  
Unfortunately, the bear was already in a bad mood  
and, furthermore, pink wasn't its colour.

3) Following for example, that is, etc  
You should use commas, for example, around 'for example'.  
There are some exceptions: namely, when using abbreviations.

-where a pause is required

1) To make the reading more natural.  
Whatever happens, don't panic.

2) To avoid confusion.  
To Margaret, Jenny left her favourite book.

-in address or quotation

1) When addressing someone by name.  
So, Murray, I'm sending you to Outer Mongolia.

2) When quoting direct speech.   
And then the boss said, "I'm sending you to Outer Mongolia."

-to indicate the omission of a word or phrase

Use too much sugar and the mixture will be sweet, [use] too little and it will be sour.

-Conditionals  

If he leaves early, he will be on time for the meeting.

If I saw a ghost, I would run away.

If I had locked the car, it wouldn't have been stolen.

-Clauses

When the clause precedes the main clause, a comma is used.

Whenever he is in town, he visits us.

[Note: He visits us whenever he is in town.] 

-Linking words 

  Do not use a comma within clauses, dividing between subject and predicate or separating between parts of compound subjects and compound predicates. In other words, do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction to separate only two words, two phrases or two dependent clauses. In the following examples, no comma is needed as they are all short one-clause sentences with no series of more than two consecutive parts. 
No: The students and the teachers, celebrated the end of the school year. 
No: The students finished their tests, and went out for a break. 
No: The students wanted to study French, and Spanish. 

         3. Uses of the Quotation marks in English writing

  Quotation marks are important punctuation marks in English that have four different uses. Whenever you quote words, ideas or texts taken from an external source, whether spoken or appearing in print, you have to set them off with quotation marks. This accredits the source to being the origin of the text, a compulsory practice in academic writing, and a recommended one in virtually any type of writing. In standard academic writing, from an essay to a thesis, you must also provide a reference to the actual source of the quote, detailing how the reader may track back to it.

   In English, there are two types of quotes: single and double. Sometimes quotes are called "inverted commas» (inverted commas). Probably the same use of those and other quotes. However, be aware that registration in writing citations or direct speech used by any one type of quotes.

Quotation marks are used:

1. To indicate the beginning and end of direct speech and quotations. Opening quotes, as opposed to the Russian language, placed on the line of the upper edge lines: 

          Ratterer asked Clyde, ‘Would -

      you recognise your uncle if you   saw him?’

    

2) To highlight the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, plays, films, etc. With the same purpose in the printed text uses italics:

I read ‘Emma’ by Jane Austin last week.    

Keep in mind that the names of books of the Bible in English, never taken in quotes:

           Matthew    

            The Book Matthew  

     We note in particular the absence of the English version of the example given the absence of a comma after the word and the absence of a preposition in the title of the books of the Old and New Testament (The New Testament; The Old Testament).  

3)  Sometimes to separate the names of ships, hotels, houses of particular names, etc.: 

  The ‘Star of India’ sails on Tuesday.     

      ‘The Crown’ is the best hotel in town.    

      ‘The Empire State Building’ is the best-known skyscraper in        

      America. 

4) For quotation within quotation, while for the internal citation is used quotes that differ from the ground Citation:

“Good heavens”, thought Jane. -

           “What shall I do if he says    

           ‘Hello’ to me?”      

5) To highlight the word, which is not consumed in its usual sense:

I don’t want to hear any ‘dirty’ words coming from you.      

           4. Uses of the Apostrophe in English writing

    The apostrophe is an important punctuation mark in English that actually has three different uses, a fact which contributes to the many errors English writers often make using it. In English, it is used rather widely and you cannot avoid using it but you should not just stick in anywhere you want, as misuse of its basic uses may lead to perceiving your writing as weak, uneducated or even childish. 
     An apostrophe indicates to skip one or more letters in the word (digit number). The apostrophe is used:

1) For the formation of reduced verb forms: 

I am  = I’m I have = I’ve do not = don’t

he is = he’s I shall = I’ll  does not = doesn’t

she is = she’s you are = you’re have not = haven’t 

2) Sometimes when writing abbreviated words:

‘flu = influenza flue

3) To send a letter to the distorted pronunciation in speech, for example:

meetin’ = meeting; ‘em = them; ‘ave = have;

Sometimes when writing a year if the two first two digits are omitted: '02 within the meaning of 2002;

4) For the formation of our everyday nouns:

   - Designating a person or animal, for example: 

a boy’s book           

boys’ books 

a woman’s dress  

women’s dresses 

a horse’s shoe  

        horses’ shoes

       -In expressions, denoting the time period, for example:

an hour’s walk  

      three years’ absence

     -In the names of private houses, shops, businesses, etc. with the value of accessories:

       I’m going to the baker’s (my aunt’s; the Smiths’; Smith and Brown’s).  

     5) The formation of plural words usually have no plural form:

It seems an interesting idea, but there are a lot of

     6) Education in plural names of letters and numbers:

    He writes b’s instead of d’s.

It was in the early 1960’s. 

              

               5. Uses of the Semicolon in English writing

    The semicolon (;) is a punctuation mark in English separating elements but used much less than the comma. It is more often used in more advanced extended sentences and adds a formal tone. Its name implies that it indicates a separation that is neither full (as indicated by the period), nor minute (as indicated by a comma). The semicolon denotes a half-way separation between elements close in meaning.

   The semicolon is used:

1. Instead of (or instead of a comma) between the parts of a compound sentence connected to the union or conjunction less bond. In such cases, composed suggestions grammatically independent, but the semantic relation between them closer than that between the simple sentences, separated from each other point, and less than originally composed between sentences, separated by commas. For example: 

Some people work best in the - mornings; others do better in the -evenings.  

2. To separate subordinate clauses from each other if they all depend on the same main clause:

You may use the sports facilities on condition that your subscriptions are paid regularly; that you arrange for all necessary cleaning to be carried out; that you undertake to make good any damage. 

3. To spread a simple sentence that contains a lot of commas are mentioned, for its division into its constituent parts. For example:

You will have full charge of the - poultry, sheep and rabbits; also give a hand with the milking when required.   
 
 

         6. Uses of the Question mark in English writing

   The question mark (?) is a terminal punctuation mark in English usually used at the end of a sentence with no extra period. It turns a sentence into a query and can also be used to indicate uncertainty, tentativeness or incredulity. Do not use more than one question mark at the end of a question in formal or academic writing. The question mark is usually used in dialogues and narratives and less so in formal articles.

         1) Use the question mark when posing a direct query in an interrogative sentence. This denotes that the speaker is seeking information.

                            Are there any letters for me this morning ? 
                                When did you finish writing that report ? 
 
       2) Use the question mark to turn a statement into a question. This denotes that the speaker is assuming or hoping for a certain reply. 
                               

                               You promise to finish going through these invoices ? 
                               She didn't actually quit her job ? 
   

      3)  Use the question mark in statements ending with a word inflected as a query and with question tags. 
                                   Just leave these papers on my desk, OK ? 
                                So you got a promotion, eh ? 
     4)  Use the question mark after a direct question which is inserted into a statement. If the question comes at the end, separate it with a comma. Capitalization of the question after the comma is used for extreme emphasis but is rarely recommended. 
                                  

               Her boss wondered, Was she really doing her job the best she could ? 
                           [question capitalized for extreme emphasis] 

       5) You can use a question mark with italics to show shock or incredulity.

                            She said what ?

       
    6) To end direct questions, requiring a response.

                                May I borrow your copy of the book?

                               What did you think of the play? 

       7. Uses of the Exclamation mark in English writing

      The exclamation point ( !) is a terminal punctuation mark in English and is usually used at the end of a sentence with no extra period. It can turn a simple indicative or declarative sentence into a strong command or reflect an emotional outburst. 

      1) The exclamation mark is placed after the words and sentences, re-enabling strong emotions: surprise, anger, joy, fear, etc. The exclamation point can be after a single word, several words, or at the end of the offer:

                               Help! Throw me a rope!  

                      How nice! 

                            Oh! , Aw!

      

     2) If you put an exclamation point after one or two words, the subsequent sentence can begin with small letters: 

                       Stop! we’ve left the light out!

       

      3) In dialogue, use the exclamation point to indicate a strong command in an imperative sentence. This denotes a firm and direct order.

                       Clean the elephant enclosure now ! 
                           Look out, there's an elephant running behind you ! 
   

      4)  In dialogue, use the exclamation point to convey an emphatic declaration, which can indicate any of the following emotions: 
                             Shock: "There's been a terrible accident !" 
                          Excitement: "Oh my God ! What a fantastic birthday gift !" 
                         Urgency: "Drive carefully ! Watch out for traffic signs ! If you don't, you could die ! 
                        Vehemence: "Down with the new anti-elephant laws !" 
                       Astonishment: "I just can't believe what she's done ! It's simply beyond me !" 
 
     5) You can use an exclamation point with italics to show shock or incredulity.

                  She said what !

     6) To add emphasis to the statement.

                      I loved the play!

             8. Uses of the Colon in English writing

 
    The colon (:) is a very useful punctuation mark in English that has some important uses. The basic function of the colon is to draw the reader's attention to the text that follows it. There is usually a question-answer relationship between the two elements separated by the colon. As a result, it serves as a rather powerful rhetoric device writers use to arouse curiosity or even suspense within the reader, who is thus motivated to continue reading.

   1) Before enumerated homogeneous members, which are preceded by generalizing the word:

           My sister finds all school subjects easy: French, history, maths, everything.

  2) Before the second sentence, if it explains, extends, or refine preserves what has been said in the first sentence: 

      His refusal did not surprise me: I had expected it. 

  3) After the words of the author before the direct speech is a long text, 4) before the transfer, according to a listed:  

           Please, send the following items:

  - birth certificate;        

  - passport;           

  4) After inputting a quote:  

         In the words of Oscar Wilde: ‘I can resist anything except temptation.’  

  5) In the headers to separate the main title from the subtitle:  

         Punctuation: Colon

  6)  Before a list, summary or quote.

        I could only find three of the ingredients: sugar, flour and coconut.

        With the exception of one's, pronouns (its, his, hers) do not require an apostrophe.

     7) To complete a statement of fact.

          There are only three kinds of people: the good, the bad and the ugly.  

  9. Uses of the Hyphen, Dash, Brackets, Capital Letters and Ellipses in English writing 

  Hyphen is used between the words in the formation of compound words.

  In English, words can be written separately, together or hyphenated. As a rule, are written with a hyphen:

   1) Compound words, the second of which begins with a capital letter:

         Anglo-Saxon, Franco-Italian 

   2) Compound words, one component of which ends in-ing:

      dining-room 

      sewing-machine

 

3) The numerals such as twenty-one - twenty and one 

4) Сompound adjectives formed from numerals and substance-negative with a value of time and space: three-page - trehstra-boundary; ten-year - ten years;

      5) Сompound adjectives, such as: world-famous - world-renowned LIMITED; electro-magnetic - electromagnetic.

      6) In compound adjectives, the second component which is formed from the noun with the ending-ed or is stradatel-nym participle: blue-eyed - blue; heart-broken - killed by the first-Rem

      7) In groups of words used as a qualifier in front of there, surprising:

       an out-of-work lorry driver

     8) In compound words with an accent on first base (they can also pi-satsya together), compound words with an accent on second base are written separately:

                     book-case   make-up