Youth Culture in Britain

      Первый лист отсчитывается с титульника. Не смещай то что ниже сюда из за нумерации. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

      CONTENTS 
 

Introduction                                                                                                               3

1 Youth culture and it's peculiarities                                                                        3

     1.1 A brief history and major events of British youth culture                                  6

2 British youth subcultures                                                                                      10

2.1 Teddy Boys                                                                                                        10

2.2 Punks                                                                                                                 12

2.3 Mods                                                                                                                  13

2.4 Skinheads                                                                                                           13

2.5 Rockers                                                                                                              14

3 The music of the youth                                                                                         16

3.1 Punk-Rock                                                                                                         16

3.2 Britpop                                                                                                               17

3.3 Glam Rock                                                                                                         18

3.4 Gothic Rock                                                                                                       18

3.5 Dance Music                                                                                                      19

4 Modern tendencies in youth culture in Britain                                                     21

4.1 Hippies                                                                                                               21

4.2 Goth                                                                                                                   22

4.3 Emo                                                                                                                    23

4.4 The problem of youth music and culture commercialization                            23

5 The youth and the art                                                                                            25

5.1 Graffiti                                                                                                               25

5.2 Northern soul                                                                                                     26

5.3 Tattoo                                                                                                                 27

5.4 Piercing                                                                                                              28

Conclusion                                                                                                               30

Bibliography                                                                                                            31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

      INTRODUCTION 
 

      Everyone is individually a part of the society in smaller groups called subcultures. When I had to come up with different subcultures I wasn't a part of them, I only had family, friends, and extracurricular activities. Then, I branched out to different groups of friends, ethnicity, race, language, religion, and many more that would characterize me specifically. Although there were many other people involved in the same cultures as me, I realized that others and myself were very unique individually because there was no one else around me who matched my description and cultures all combined together.

      However for me it's still difficult to know what's it's like to be a part of the group I am not in.  When at school I was first listening to other classmates' subcultures, I, once again, experienced feeling different and deviant from others especially because many of my friends were involved and attached to the punk or emo subcultures whereas I was not. I wasn't able to understand and accept how they could enjoy getting involved in such groups and their activities. But today I have a good chance to feel connected with their and many other subcultures through this coursework.

      Britain was the motherland for almost all modern youth subcultures: Punks, Goths, Skinheads. British musicians played biggest role in establishing the music of the youth: Rock, Punk, Heavy Metal, Pop and Ska. And in general Britain has been defining the trends of youth culture since the beginning of the 20th century and continues to play very important role in young people's fashion, music and culture.

      The culture of the youth is based on 3 major cores: inside culture (or subcultures), music and arts. That's why my course work is divided into these three units plus additional unit describing youth culture and it's history in general.

      Writing this coursework I hope to learn new about most popular youth subcultures, their history, music, traditions and find out more about those subcultures which became the sings of the past. 
 

      1 YOUTH CULTURE AND IT'S PECULIARITIES 
 

     Culture is among the most complicated words in the English language. It refers to the processes by which the symbolic systems (e.g., common sense, "usual way of doing things"; traditions and rituals, frameworks for understanding experience, etc.) characteristically shared by a group of people are maintained and transformed across time. Despite the appearance of stability, culture is a dynamic, historical process. Youth culture refers to those processes and symbolic systems that young people share that are, to some degree, distinctive from those of their parents and the other adults in their community.

     Youth cultures have not been part of all societies throughout history. They appear most frequently where significant realms of social autonomy for young people become regularized and expected features of the socialization process. Most scholars would agree that the conditions necessary for the mass youth cultures recognizable today appeared after the formation of modern nation-states and the routinization of the human life course in the industrializing nations of the nineteenth century. The mass institutions of the nation-state, which separate young people from adults and gather them in large numbers for education, religious instruction, training, work, or punishment have been consistent locations in which youth cultures have developed. There is some evidence suggesting that youth cultures may have existed in certain circumstances during the medieval period [2, p. 14].

     Research into youth cultures has been most prolific in the disciplines of sociology, psychology, and anthropology; it is readily apparent in criminology of juveniles, demographic analyses, studies of the family and adolescent social development, and the study of ritual. The analytic frameworks and debates about youth cultures that have emerged from the three major disciplines have been taken up in other areas of study, including history. Like most fields in the humanities and social sciences, youth studies is marked less by the certainty of its knowledge than by a series of long-running debates.

     As a specific phenomenon youth culture arose in connection with the fact that the physiological acceleration young people accompanied by a sharp increase in the duration of their term socialization (sometimes up to 30 years), which is caused by the need to increase the time education and training, meeting the requirements era. Today the young man soon cease to be a child (at their psycho-physiological development), but on the social status for a long time not belongs to the world of adults. Adolescence - a time when economic activity and independence is not achieved in full. Psychologically, the youth belongs to the world of adults, and sociologically - the world adolescence [2, p. 38]. If the sense of saturation of knowledge man matures much earlier, then in the sense of status in society, opportunities to have their say - the maturity of its is removed. "Youth" as a phenomenon and a sociological category born of an industrial society, characterized by the psychological maturity in the absence of significant participation in the institutions of adults.

     Appearance youth culture associated with the uncertainty of the social roles of young people, uncertainty in their own social status. In the ontogenetic aspect subculture is represented as a developmental phase through which to pass each. Its essence - the search for social status. Through her youth "practices" in the performance of roles, which in future will have play in the adult world. The most accessible social platform for specific cases youth - leisure, where you can show your own self: the ability to decide and lead, organize and organize. Relax - it not only communication but also a kind of social game, the lack of skills such games in youth leads to a person and as an adult feels free from obligations. In dynamic societies, the family partially or completely loses its function as a court of socialization, since the rate changes in social life generate historical discrepancy senior changing challenges of the new generation of time. With the entry into junior age of the young man turns away from family, looking for those social ties which should protect it from yet another alien society. Between lost family and society not yet gained the young man seeks to join their fellows. Thus forming informal groups provide young man a certain social status. Pay for it, often in favor of denial identity and the complete subjugation of the norms, values and interests of the group. These informal groups produce their subculture that is different from the culture adults. She characterized the internal consistency and external protest conventional institutions. With its own culture, these groups marginal to society, and therefore always contain elements social disruption, potentially tend to be deviant from generally accepted norms of behavior [2, p. 201].

     Enough often still confined to eccentric behavior and violation of conventional morality, the interests of around sex, "hangouts", music and drugs. However, this same environment generates counterculture's value orientation, the supreme principle which declares the principle of pleasure, pleasure, he motive and purpose of all behavior. All grid of values of youth counterculture associated with irrationalism, that dictated by the recognition of his own human nature only, in other words disassociation "human" from the "social", which arose because of the "monopoly of the head." Consistent implementation irrationalism defines hedonism as a leading value orientation of youth counterculture. Hence, moral permissiveness, which is essential and organic element of the counterculture. Since the existence of the counterculture focused on "Today," "now", the hedonistic aspiration is the direct consequence of this.

     Modern youth, however, consists not only of non-formals. The third category consists so-called "yuppies" and "non-yuppies". It came from medium and low-income families, characterized by dedication, seriousness, pragmatism, independence judgments, assessments and activities. They aimed at ensuring the material well in the future and advancement social and corporate ladder. Their interests are concentrated in the area education as a necessary springboard for successful progress in life. In their style of dress distinguishes business classic style and underline neatness. "Yuppie", as a rule, have no bad habits, take care their health, a prestigious sports. They are characterized by desire to make money and successful career as a businessman, Bankers, lawyers.  

1. A brief history and major events of British youth culture

      British youth culture over the past 60 years has experienced rebellion and self-expression. Here is brief chronology of different events which played huge role in modern formation of youth culture.

      Back in 1946 one significant school reform was undertaken: the school leaving age was raised from 14 years to 16. From that year and until Education Reform Act of 1988 the average age for all school leavers in Britain was 16.

      In 1951 the first term for the children of the age of 13 was introduced. Formed from -teen as a separate word age the derived noun was teenager (the earlier word for this was teener).

      In 1953 Rock and Roll comes to Britain via American soldiers, it is copied wholesale. Britain develops own look to go with the culture (Teddy Boys). Radio creates a new market playing a fusion of “dance hall” rhythm and blues and county music for young people.

      The 1960's. At the beginning of the 60's Britain got it's first original youth cult, the Mods, a fashion based culture with a continental style mixed with a love of soul and R'n'B. Look developed from continental films.

      In the mid 1960's Britain faced with major problem among youth - recreational drug use became widespread. It was popular especially among uppers e.g. amphetamine sulphate and dexedrine.

      In the 60's The Vietnam War led to the spreading of Hippie culture. The hippies didn't follow the teachings of its elders, but rejected them for an alternative culture which was their very own. The Hippie movement started in San Fransisco, California and spread across the United States, through Canada and parts of Europe. They were all young listeners of rock music and nonconformists. A move happens from the use of uppers to Hallucinogenic drugs [15, p. 276].

      These years also represented us probably the most famous and significant rock band in the world - The Beatles. Initially a five-piece line-up of Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, Stuart Sutcliffe (bass) and Pete Best (drums), built their reputation playing clubs in Liverpool and Hamburg from 1960-1963. Few years later, they gained popularity in the UK and in 70's they became popular allover the world. They have been awarded 6 Diamond albums, as well as 24 Multi-Platinum albums, 39 Platinum albums and 45 Gold albums in the United States, while in the UK they have 4 Multi-Platinum albums, 4 Platinum albums, 8 Gold albums and 1 Silver album. The group were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.

      1970's. In the 70's pop takes over as 'Big Business' come to youth culture for the first time.

      In 1971 another famous rock band Led Zeppelin creates Heavy Metal. With roots in blues rock and psychedelic rock, the band developed a thick, massive sound, characterized by highly amplified distortion, extended guitar solos, emphatic beats, and overall loudness. Heavy metal lyrics and performance styles are generally associated with masculinity and machismo [1, p. 22].

      Since 1969 and till 80's The Skinhead cult (the combination of those Mods whose love was violence and Jamaican influences) takes its rise and anger on football grounds.

      The arrival of Punk as well as the rise of skinhead culture was very important for the 70's. Rooted in garage rock and other forms of what is now known as protopunk music, punk rock bands eschewed the perceived excesses of mainstream 1970s rock. They created fast, hard-edged music, typically with short songs, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political, anti-establishment lyrics. Punk embraces a DIY ethic, with many bands self-producing their recordings and distributing them through informal channels [17, p. 37].

      Another musical genre, Glam Rock, which was performed by singers and musicians who wore outrageous clothes, makeup and hairstyles, particularly platform-soled boots and glitter was developed in the UK in the early 1970s. This genre was characterized by simple drum patterns played with precision, guitar laden melodies often relying on riffs, a catchy or gimmicky chorus that was written to be memorable and lyrics that can be interpreted many ways - most often sexually.

      In the winter of 1978-79 in the United Kingdom a lot of strikes were undertaken by local authority trade unions demanding larger pay rises for their members. This period was called the "Winter of Discontent" because the weather turned very cold in the early months of 1979 with blizzards and deep snow, and it became the coldest since 1962-63, which added to people's misery. Lots of youngsters were involved in these strikes but fortunately nobody suffered from these riots.

      1980's. In early 80s "Gothic" style develops from the more glamorous remnant of Punk. This style was notable for dark clothes mixed with metal fixings and long unusual haircuts.

      In 1982 homosexuality becomes a subject of public debate in Britain for the first time. The New Romantic style makes gender crossing a fashion.

      In 1985 The Red Wedge was formed. It was a collective of British popular musicians who attempted to engage young people with politics in general, and the policies of the Labour Party in particular, during the period leading up to the 1987 general election, in the hope of ousting the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher. This formation gave number of concerts, organized tours and after the 1987 election produced a third consecutive Conservative victory, many of the musical collective drifted away.

      Another subgenre of heavy music appeared in mid 80s. The term given to this genre was Black Metal. First it took off in America and amongst British schoolboys. It often uses fast tempos, shrieked vocals, highly distorted guitars played with tremolo picking, blast beat drumming, raw recording, and unconventional song structure.

      In the early 90's House music expands and in Britain the Rave scene begins. Over the previous few years a culture of free all night parties and festivals (Raves) use of dance drugs (to keep dancing all night long similar to the early 60's mods) births Acid House. Techno music (a form of electronic dance music) also arrives in this period.

      The Criminal Justice Act of 1994, designed to hinder new age travellers, protests such as the Poll Tax riots and Raves makes it too difficult to stage this new dance music scene in fields at night for a select few, driving it into the high street club structures. The drugs follow, effectively introducing drugs to an alcohol-centric club scene, fuelling the growth of ecstasy use.

      In the mid 90's the average age of the record buying public dips to 12. The age of consent for Homosexuality also drops.

      Club culture explodes as the idea of partying in a field looses it's charm. And drugs like LSD and Ecstasy become more available.

      Going through bad times, Punk and Skinhead cultures partially replaced by the culture of "Brit Pop" in London's Camden. This culture gives young people a chance to express themselves again.

      The last but not the least event in the mid 90's is spreading of internet. Since 90s in becomes available and young people got new ways of communication, self-expression and socialization.

      The Late 90's was marked by massive interest amongst young people in "extreme" sports - skateboarding, snowboarding, mountain biking etc.

      Teen “bubblegum” pop fills the void for the record industry when Brit Pop wears itself out.

      The continuing growth of Media/Communication/Information super highway means that young people are bombarded with masses of information and ideas of an incredibly diverse nature. And finally computers have become the "generation separator" of the 90's.

      Today an ever growing market of mobile phones gave teenagers more new ways for communication and even combined internet, media and social networks in telephones. I-pods were the must have Christmas gift of 2003. Since 2000 reality TV sensation shows on such channels as MTV and Live 8 attracted young Brits to the screens. Ben Johnson, head of MTV said: "We don't influence young people, we own them!" [15, p. 174].

      Many subcultures such as Skinheads and Punks experience their revival and transformation: Skinheads go in politics and many Punks step aside from ideas of DIY and music independence. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

      2 BRITISH YOUTH SUBCULTURES 
 

      In sociology, anthropology and cultural studies, a subculture is a group of people with a culture (whether distinct or hidden) which differentiates them from the larger culture to which they belong.

      As early as 1950, British sociologist David Riesman distinguished between a majority, "which passively accepted commercially provided styles and meanings, and a 'subculture' which actively sought a minority style ... and interpreted it in accordance with subversive values".

      The middle class in Britain is so fond of its traditional way of life that it even feels a kind of sympathy with petty criminals, as long as they fit into traditions. Punks, teddy boys, skinheads and especially mods are almost accepted as part of life [9, p. 182]. 
 

      2.1 Teddy Boys 
 

      The Teddy Boy emerged in the 1950s as Britain was coming to the end of post-war austerity and represented the first face of British youth culture. The consumer boom of the 1950s America did not reach Britain until the 1960s but nevertheless working class teenagers could for the first time afford good clothes, a bicycle or motorcycle and entertainment. The clothing that the Teddy Boys wore was designed to shock their parents' generation. It consisted of an Edwardian style drape jacket, much too 'camp' for a working class man, suede Gibson shoes with thick crepe soles, narrow 'drainpipe' trousers, a smart shirt and a loud tie - usually of the 'Slim Jim' or bootlace type. The trademark drape jacket was not as impractical as it seems. Not only did it act as a badge of recognition but, as it was made of woolen cloth with lots of pockets, its kept it's owner warm as he hung around in the street and was also good at concealing weapons and alcohol. The Teddy Girls adopted American fashions such as toreador pants and circle skirts, although they tended to wear low cut tops to make themselves look less prissy. Girls wore ponytails and the boys tried a number of experimental hairstyles, the most favourite being the overblown quiff with a DA (ducks arse) at the back.

      The Teds fully embraced the American Rock and Roll music that hit Britain and the British bands that adopted the same style. The Teds were, however, shadowy figures at the dancehalls, lurking around the bars, bopping around and drinking. They formed gangs who sometimes had a common uniform like a particular colour of jacket or socks. For the most part, violence and vandalism was not too serious by modern standards, and exaggerated by the media, but there were instances of serious gang warfare with razors and knives. Some Teddyboys had fascist tendencies and were involved with gangs of youths that attacked the West Indians that emigrated to Britain in the mid Fifties. This racism was the most unfortunate of the Teddy Boy's tendencies and it closed off much American Rock and Roll to them. This was their loss as a lot of white covers of Afro-American songs were very poor by comparison with the originals [4, p. 68].

      The British pop boom of the 1960s brought new music and new youth culture. The Teddy Boys that remained began to devote more attention to Rock and Roll music, which they at first took for granted. The first Rock and Roll pubs appeared as did the Rockers who liked the same music and rode powerful British motorcycles. Teds and Rockers got on well with each other and the leather motorbike jacket became the normal wear for many Teddyboys and Teddygirls for daytime use and for rough pubs. The bike jacket could protect against motorcycle accidents, razor attacks and spilt beer in a way that the drape jacket never could [9, p. 159].

      The 1970s saw Glam Rock and Rockabilly styled bands appear in Britain and, although the Teds despised most of this music, it brought a resurgence of interest in Rock and Roll and new venues appeared. Many teenagers bought second hand drape jackets, hid the moth holes with badges and became the new generation of Teddy Boys and Teddy Girls. British Rock and Roll bands developed their own style, using guitar blues and rockabilly to give their music more bite. Rock and Roll pubs would put on bands of this type and also play original 1950s records. This, the dancing and the beer created a unique entertainment experience.

      In the 1990s the Teds and Rockabillies buried the hatchet, and any remaining racism amongst Teddy Boys evaporated, leading to the emergence of Teddy Boys in the rest of Europe where Rock and Roll has always been popular. The original Teddy Boys were by now too old for violence and those that appeared in the 1980s were not interested in fighting. This led to a new type of safer Rock and Roll event where people could feel comfortable without Rock and Roll clothes or leathers. The sight of children and teenagers in drape jackets and circle skirts suggests that Teddy Boys and Teddy Girls will still be seen for a long time yet [15, p. 134]. 

      Subcultures are not looked at in a biased and negative way a good defending argument for Severgini's statement. Movies about subcultures are no longer made only for the subcultures but commercially for general public. The altogether positive response and the success of these films is a proof of the claim that the common opinion on hooligans, skinheads, but on the whole typically British underground too, has changed as well as that people began accepting them as a part of their national identity. 
 

      2.2 Punks 
 

      Punk became probably one of the most known subcultures recognized by the majority of people. It came like a tidal wave and left everything, starting with clothes and appearance, ending with music and ideas, upside down. Since its beginnings in 1970's, the reception of punk by the British society has gone through several changes; what had seemed to be doomed and sentenced to live on the edge of society has turned into a significant part of mass popular culture.

      At the time of bands like Sex Pistols or The Clash, it was purely negative attitude that the movement had to face from the society's point of view. Provocation, opposition and radical denial of British conservative values stirred up fear among ordinary people. The news and media were filled with indignant articles about crime and violence committed by members of the punk movement creating a stereotype that still does persist among a number of people.  

      However, mohawks, wildly coloured hair, safety pins and ripped clothes as well as the music, so shocking and beyond one's grasp, almost prompted the commercial industry to take advantage of its popularity. Sooner than anyone would expect, it was turned it into a means of lucrative business. The marketing of the punk style knocked down most of the barriers that were raised in the years before [6, p. 146].

      It became fashionable in its unfashionableness and a wider range of people started to identify themselves with punk. Mainly because it gave them a feeling of being unique, freethinking and different as well as providing them with a way of expressing their revolt. Punk is nowadays a remarkable element of the mainstream popular culture. It gave roots to such music genres as the new wave, pop punk or hardcore and bands like "Green Day", "Blink 182", "Paramore" or "Good Charlotte" playing this type of music now have the main substitution in MTV. It contributed to the foundation of Britpop, which is globally one of the most popular genres. Punk fashion also inspires numberless amount of top world designers; Christian Dior for example has only lately introduced a whole punk rock collection.

      Nowadays English people are aware of the fact that punk is no longer a vulgar minority subculture but that it became an important part of the popular culture worldwide. Not only they lost most of the prejudice they held against it, but knowing its message and attitudes, they accepted it as a part of their own culture. Seeing a group of regular punks with multicoloured spiky hair, chains and beers walking down the streets of London will cause no big fuss as they are something known, understood and accepted. They have been like this for forty years and did become a part of the diverse, modernized English tradition.  

      2.3 Mods 
 

      However the story of punk is not the only one. The mod subculture, or modism that emerged in 1950's, is perhaps even more tightly linked to Britishness than punk as its ideals did not go against for example the Queen and British national identity. Punks were provocative and dirty while mods, on the contrary, clean and smart. Obsessed with expensive and elegant clothing despite their tough working class origin, they put all their money into stylish sophisticated clothing. Pompadour haircuts, Italian suits and Vespas at the early period, later purely English brands Ben Sherman or Fred Perry, combined with Sta-Prest pants and working class accessories like Dr. Martens boots and braces, were the hints to recognize mods by. Today, Ben Sherman and Fred Perry are still very popular, traditional and quite expensive brands that are worn by Englishmen with the knowledge of their origins [6, p. 111].

      Mods however, like all underground cultures, caused controversy and conflicts before they arrived at being recognized positively or at least neutrally. The elegant mod culture repeatedly got into fights with the tougher gang of rockers as well as mod gangs among each other. Media again caused furore about this and the older generation was absolutely shocked by the behaviour of their descendants.  
 

      2.4 Skinheads 

       
          Skinhead is a sub culture originated born in England in the late of 1960s. Started as a working class culture now skinhead has spread and became wider not just in the UK and Europe but also reach Asia.

      On the first appearance skinheads was not a political or race movement.  
The first skinheads were greatly influenced by West Indian (specifically Jamaican) rude boys and British mods, in terms of fashion, music and lifestyle. Originally, the skinhead subculture was primarily based on those elements, not politics or race.

      In that time skinhead was also known as street fighter gangs. Maybe its influence from national depression which made young people hard to got a job. With shaven head or short hair and boots coming from the darkest ghetto of the city skinhead down to the street and became more tougher than ever. 
In 1980s skinhead evolve as football hooligans. They organized themselves based from the same region. This is also made them called as the firm. They support local football club. Then every Saturday they start fighting from the terrace to the street of local football club ground against the supporter's football club opposite. Their brave guts also bring them to the fight when their football club did the away match to another city from the country [5, p. 44].

      Facts that skinhead getting tougher, stronger and well-organized often made them disadvantage by the political party. From the far-right to left. That's why then became racist and fascist skinhead whose involve in neo-nazi and national party. There were also red skinheads with socialist/communist as their political ideology. But there was also so many skinhead whose not involve in any political movement because they always believe that skinhead culture has no connection with any political ideology [3, p. 14].

      As musically skinhead originally was associated with soul, ska, rocksteady and reggae. But then in the late 1970s when punk rock music had its time, skinhead was also influence with this music style. That was the time Oi! music start with the band such as Sham 69, Cock Sparer, Cockney Reject, 4 Skins, etc. Oi! music originally was a mix of some music elements such as punk, rock and football chant.

      Now skinhead often known as a music or political movement (far-right or far-left). The media and the society always gave wrong statement about skinhead. That's why now so many misunderstanding about what skinhead really is. So much young people become skinhead just because of the music or the style of the fashion. But there will always the true skinhead that makes skinhead always live. 
 

      2.5 Rockers 
 

      Rockers, leather boys or ton-up boys are a biker subculture that originated in the United Kingdom during the 1950s. It was mainly centered around British cafe racer motorcycles and rock and roll music.

      Until the post-World War II years, motorcycling held a prestigious position within British society and enjoyed a positive image, being associated with wealth and glamour. Starting in the 1950s, the middle classes were able to buy inexpensive motorcars, and motorcycles became transport for the poor. The rocker subculture came about due to factors such as: the end of post-war rationing in the UK, a general rise in prosperity for working class youths, the recent availability of credit and financing for young people, the influence of American popular music and films such as The Wild One, the construction of race track-like arterial ring roads around British cities, and the development of transport cafes. These factors coincided with a peak in British motorcycle engineering [1, p. 119].

      Rocker-style youths existed in the 1950s, and were also known as ton-up boys because ton-up was English slang for driving at a speed of 100 mph (160 km/h) or over. The Teddy boys of the 1950s are considered their "spiritual ancestors". The rockers or ton-up boys took what was essentially a sport and turned it into a lifestyle, dropping out of mainstream society and "rebelling at the points where their will crossed society's". It had a damaging effect on the public image of motorcycling in the UK, and led to the politicisation of the motorcycling community.

      Around this time, the emerging mass media started targeting what were socially powerless groups who could not resist negative imagery, and cast them as "folk devils", creating a moral panic through highly exaggerated and ill-founded portrayals. From the 1960s on, due to the media fury surrounding the mods and rockers, motorcycling youths became more commonly known as rockers, a term previously little known outside of small groups. The public came to consider rockers as hopelessly naive, loutish, scruffy, motorized cowboys, loners or outsiders [7, p. 200].

      Rockers, like the Ton-Up Boys before them, were immersed in 1950's rock and roll music and fashions, and began to be known as much for their devotion to the music as they were for their motorcycles. Many rockers favored 1950s and early-1960s rock and roll by artists such as Gene Vincent, Eddie Cochran, Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Carl Perkins, Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis; music that George Melly called at the time, "screw and smash" music [1, p. 88].